CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Food is a combination of macronutrients and micronutrients and is a basic necessity of life. To be balanced, a diet must supply all six classes of food components: carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, mineral salts, fats and oils, and water. Good nutrition is a fundamental prerequisite for human welfare and contributes to both human and social capital. Nutritious foods are those that supply the required macronutrients and micronutrients in suitable proportions, and they include fruits and vegetables, which provide the vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates and minerals needed to sustain the body and maintain health. Eating food that lacks the right nutrient composition can lead to malnutrition, which is a condition of impaired development caused by a long-term deficiency or excess of energy or nutrients, in which the cells do not receive adequate nutrients to function at their best.

Protein is one of the macronutrients whose importance cannot be overstated. It is required for the growth, maintenance and repair of all body tissues. Protein for human consumption comes from plants and animals, but plant proteins are generally deficient in certain essential amino acids, notably methionine, tryptophan and lysine, which are necessary for healthy growth. Animal products usually contain a better balance of amino acids and a higher concentration of protein than most plant foods. For this reason animal proteins are regarded as complete proteins, containing all the amino acids the body needs, whereas plant proteins lack one or more of them. People who follow a strictly vegetarian diet must therefore combine different plant foods to obtain the variety of amino acids required for good health.

Nigeria has abundant natural and human resources, yet animal protein intake remains very low. Adewale and Belewu (2022) report that daily per capita animal protein intake in Nigeria is estimated at under 10 g, far short of the 35 g minimum recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The shortfall is closely tied to supply and affordability. As populations and incomes grow in developing countries, demand for animal protein such as meat and fish rises steadily, while domestic production has not kept pace.

Beef and fish are the two animal protein foods that dominate the Nigerian diet. Beef, the meat of mature cattle, is a product of livestock farming, which remains an essential part of the agricultural sector. It is a major source of high-quality protein for the growth and repair of the body and for energy, and it supplies vitamins and minerals including iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, riboflavin and thiamine. Abubakar, Ja’afar-Furo and Abdullahi (2024) describe beef as the major source of animal protein available to people, note that global demand for it is rising with population growth, and observe that in Nigeria supply has not risen in step, leaving a substantial shortfall.

Fish is equally important. Njiraini, Chelang’a, Yattani, Kirui and Popoola (2026) report that fisheries and aquaculture contribute between 3% and 4% of Nigeria’s gross domestic product, provide about 40% of the animal-source protein that Nigerians eat, and support the livelihoods of about 12 million artisanal fishers and fish farmers. Nigeria is Africa’s largest fish consumer by volume, but domestic production meets only about one-third of annual demand of 3.2 to 3.6 million metric tonnes. The gap of about 2.4 million tonnes is filled by imports costing more than USD 1.0 billion a year, although output is rising, from 1.1 million tonnes in 2024 to 1.4 million tonnes in 2025 (Njiraini et al., 2026). Fish eaten at every stage of life, including pregnancy and childhood, contributes to health and development, and its share of the protein supply has grown as demand has risen.

The cost of these foods has become a serious concern for households. Food inflation was recorded at 40.87% in June 2024 and 21.14% in May 2025, and a 2024 survey by SBM Intelligence reported that 72% of Nigerians had reduced or stopped eating meat because of its price (Aimuengheuwa, 2025). Traders in several states reported that a kilogramme of beef had risen by well over 50% within a year, and that many households had switched to cheaper alternatives (Daily Trust, 2025). Understanding how households spend on beef and fish, and how they respond to changes in price and income, is therefore important for nutrition and food policy.

1.2 Problem Statement

One of the greatest problems facing Nigerian households is how to improve the quality and quantity of their diets and to correct nutritional imbalances. Many Nigerians are inadequately fed, chiefly because their diets are unbalanced and lack the protein needed for growth and development. In developing countries, malnutrition can be understood in terms of inadequate consumption of macronutrients. Insufficient intake of these nutrients hinders healthy growth, reduces a person’s ability to carry out productive activities and lowers the body’s use of other nutrients. Protein deficiency in the diet therefore affects income-earning ability, the development of manpower and ultimately the contribution of the population to national output. Malnutrition in Nigeria has been linked to shortages of food, both in quantity and in access to the right kind of food needed for a balanced diet. Many people consume enough calories but fail to obtain the protein, vitamins and minerals required for a healthy life, and the protein available to them is also of lower quality than that eaten in developed countries.

Beef and fish play a vital role in feeding the population and supplying dietary protein to millions of people. They are also low in fat and high in protein, vitamins and minerals, which has drawn growing attention to their health benefits. Yet the supply of both is limited. Fish production covers only a fraction of national demand (Njiraini et al., 2026), and beef supply has not matched population growth (Abubakar et al., 2024). Rising prices have placed both foods further out of reach (Aimuengheuwa, 2025).

Household nutritional status is influenced by socio-economic factors, including the prices of food and non-food items, household income and how that income is shared among basic needs. Evidence from Nigerian studies confirms the point. Abubakar et al. (2024) found that income, household size, monthly expenditure on beef, frequency of consumption and age were significant determinants of fresh beef consumption. Musa (2015), studying households in Kaduna metropolis, found that education level, household size and income influenced beef and fish consumption, that own-price elasticities were negative, that substitution existed between animal protein sources, and that the main constraints were high prices, low income, rapid spoilage and low supply. In a study of 590 rural households in south-eastern Nigeria, Ojogho and Ojo (2018) found that fish and most meats were necessities, with chicken the only luxury, and they concluded that price-oriented policies would be more effective than income-oriented ones in combating animal protein deficiency. In Abuja, Wane and Ferrari (2024) found distinct consumption patterns across income groups, with beef regarded as an inferior good among high-income households.

Consumption patterns are also shaped by social and cultural variables such as family size and composition, occupation, tastes and preferences, and the education of the household head. As a result, households often compensate for the cost of protein foods by eating more carbohydrate, which is cheaper and easier to prepare. The availability of beef and fish within a household is an important determinant of its members’ well-being. Yet there is little or no research on the demand for beef and fish in the study area, in terms of the factors that determine demand, how consumption responds to income, to the prices of the products and of their substitutes, what households pay and how much they consume. This study was designed to fill that gap.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to analyse household consumption expenditure on selected staple foods, using beef and fish. The specific objectives are to:

i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of beef- and fish-consuming households;

ii. estimate the share of household expenditure on beef and fish;

iii. determine the own-price, cross-price and expenditure elasticities of demand for beef and fish; and

iv. identify the constraints faced by households in consuming beef and fish in the study area.

1.4 Research Questions

This demand study aims to answer the following questions:

i. What are the socio-economic characteristics of households that consume the staple foods beef and fish?

ii. What share of household expenditure goes to beef and fish?

iii. What are the own-price, cross-price and expenditure elasticities of demand for beef and fish?

iv. What constraints do households face in consuming beef and fish in the study area?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The importance of animal protein to the survival and growth of human beings cannot be overemphasised. Protein functions as enzymes, membrane transporters and hormones, supports building and growth in the body’s systems, and helps to prevent disease. It is required for the growth, maintenance and repair of all body tissues. Beef and fish are among the highest-quality sources of protein. They supply nutrients that the body absorbs easily, provide energy even in small quantities and improve the overall quality of the diet.

Protein malnutrition remains a major problem in Nigeria because supplies of animal protein are short. Food consumption matters in Nigeria not only because it is linked to poverty and food security but also because it is closely correlated with living standards. Although plant sources can also supply protein, animal protein remains necessary to meet the recommended intake (Adewale & Belewu, 2022).

This study analyses household consumption expenditure on selected staple foods, using beef and fish. Its results will provide information on the determinants of demand for beef and fish and on the price and expenditure elasticities of both, and they will explain why these products fail to meet households’ protein requirements. The findings will serve as reference material for students, researchers and policy makers at local, national and institutional levels. They will also add to the empirical evidence on animal protein demand available to stakeholders in the livestock and fisheries industries, who are working to ensure an adequate supply of fish, beef and other animal protein and so to reduce protein malnutrition in the country. In particular, by showing how households respond to prices and incomes, the study can help policy makers decide between price-oriented measures, such as support for production, and income-oriented measures (Ojogho & Ojo, 2018).

1.6 Hypotheses

The null hypotheses for this study are as follows:

H₀₁: There is no significant relationship between the quantity of beef and fish consumed by households and the price paid for the products.

H₀₂: There is no significant relationship between household income and the quantity of beef or fish consumed by the households.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Staple foods: Foods that are eaten regularly and in such quantity that they form a dominant part of the diet and supply a large share of a population’s energy and nutrients. In this study, beef and fish are the staple foods selected for analysis.

Consumption: The use of goods and services by households to satisfy their needs and wants. In this study it refers to the quantity of beef and fish that households eat over a given period.

Expenditure: The amount of money that households spend on goods and services. Household consumption expenditure on beef and fish is the money spent on buying these foods, and its share of total household spending shows how much weight the foods carry in the household budget.

Household: A person or group of persons, related or unrelated, who live together in the same dwelling, share the same housekeeping arrangements and make joint provision for food and other living essentials.

Elasticity of demand: The responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in its own price (own-price elasticity), in the price of another good (cross-price elasticity) or in income or total expenditure (expenditure elasticity).

References

Abubakar, A., Ja’afar-Furo, M. R., & Abdullahi, A. (2024). Analysing the determinants of fresh beef consumption and its marketing efficiency in Nigeria: A rural perspective. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 3(73), 282–293. https://doi.org/10.17306/j.jard.2024.01803

Adewale, C. I., & Belewu, K. Y. (2022). Economic analysis of snail production and its contribution to food security of farming households in Nigeria. Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica, 55, 159–168. https://doi.org/10.2478/ats-2022-0017

Aimuengheuwa, J. (2025, July 7). Meat is now a luxury: Nigeria’s shrinking plate and the fate of food. Techeconomy. https://techeconomy.ng/meat-is-now-a-luxury-nigeria-shrinking-plate

Daily Trust. (2025). Beef prices soar as Nigerians turn to alternatives. https://dailytrust.com/?p=1744078

Musa, U. D. (2015). Analysis of consumption expenditure on animal protein by households in Kaduna metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria [Master’s thesis]. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. https://kubanni.abu.edu.ng/handle/123456789/8526

Njiraini, G., Chelang’a, P., Yattani, A., Kirui, O. K., & Popoola, O. (2026). Towards sustainable fisheries and aquaculture in Nigeria: Evidence, constraints, and investment priorities (NSSP Working Paper No. 71). International Food Policy Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/184055

Ojogho, O., & Ojo, M. P. (2018). Price-effect analysis of demand for meat and fish amongst rural households in south-eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Food and Agricultural Economics, 6(3), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.283869

Wane, A., & Ferrari, S. (2024). Meat consumption dynamics and demand elasticities in Abuja, Nigeria (Technical note). CIRAD and ILRI. https://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=611404