ASSESSMENT OF CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN LAGOS STATE AND REMEDIATION MEASURES

 

ASSESSMENT OF CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN LAGOS STATE AND REMEDIATION MEASURES

ABSTRACT

Building collapse has emerged as one of the most persistent and deadly structural engineering crises confronting Nigeria, and Lagos State  the country’s most populous and economically dominant city sits at its epicentre. Between 1984 and 2023, Lagos recorded 108 documented cases of building collapse resulting in at least 460 deaths (Nicholas, Dickson & Okeke, 2022; Awe et al., 2023), making it the state with the highest frequency of structural failures in Nigeria. The phenomenon is not merely a technical failure; it is a reflection of systemic failures in planning, governance, professional practice, and material standards that have persisted despite repeated legislative interventions and public outcry. This study is therefore undertaken to undertake a systematic assessment of the causes of building collapse in Lagos State and to propose evidence-based remediation measures that can be adopted by government agencies, engineering professionals, and the construction industry to stem this avoidable crisis.The study adopts a mixed-methods research design, combining a structured questionnaire survey of registered civil and structural engineers, architects, and builders in Lagos State with a content analysis of documented building collapse incidents from 1984 to 2024. A purposive sampling technique is used to select respondents, and data are analysed using descriptive statistics and the Relative Importance Index (RII). The study draws on peer-reviewed literature sourced from Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Scopus-indexed journals, situating Lagos State’s building collapse crisis within the global and Nigerian context of structural engineering failure, regulatory inadequacy, and urban construction governance.The study aims to identify the primary technical, human, regulatory, and environmental causes of building collapse in Lagos State; to evaluate the frequency, spatial distribution, and typology of collapsed buildings; and to recommend a framework of remediation measures encompassing engineering design improvements, materials quality control, professional regulation, building inspection protocols, and policy reforms. The findings of this study are expected to contribute to evidence-based reforms in building regulation and structural engineering practice in Lagos State and across Nigeria, and to provide a scholarly foundation for future research into structural safety and collapse prevention in rapidly urbanising African cities.

Keywords: Building Collapse, Lagos State, Structural Failure, Causes, Remediation, Reinforced Concrete, Substandard Materials, Building Codes, Nigeria, Urban Construction Safety, Structural Engineering

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

1.1.1 The Global Dimension of Building Collapse

Building collapse is a global engineering and public safety challenge that claims hundreds of lives annually across every continent. According to Keim (2021, as cited in Ohenhen & Shirzaei, 2022), an average of eight building collapses occur per year worldwide, resulting in more than 300 deaths annually. These incidents are commonly attributed to low-quality construction materials, non-compliance with structural design standards, inadequate oversight during construction, and the failure of competent authorities to enforce building codes. In developing countries, however, the incidence, severity, and systemic causes of building collapse are significantly amplified by poverty, weak regulatory institutions, rapid and poorly planned urbanisation, and the proliferation of informal construction activity outside the reach of professional supervision or regulatory control.

Notable international building collapse disasters in recent decades underscore the gravity of this challenge. The Rana Plaza factory collapse in Dhaka, Bangladesh in April 2013  which killed 1,134 garment workers  became a watershed moment in global conversations about building safety in developing nations. A self-built house collapse in Changsha, China in April 2022, which trapped 53 people and left 39 missing, further demonstrated that even middle-income countries are not immune when regulatory oversight falters (Changsha Collapse Report, 2022). In all such incidents, post-collapse investigations consistently reveal a familiar constellation of causes: structural overloading, illegal alterations to approved designs, foundation inadequacies, the use of substandard materials, and failure by regulatory agencies to enforce standards. These findings are directly applicable to the Lagos State context and provide an important comparative framework for this study.

1.1.2 Building Collapse in Nigeria: An Overview

In Nigeria, building collapse has evolved from an occasional tragedy into an alarmingly regular occurrence. The first recorded post-independence building collapse in Nigeria occurred in October 1974 in Mokola, Ibadan, when a multi-storey building under construction caved in and killed 27 people (Olagunju, Aremu & Ogundele, 2013, as cited in Awe et al., 2025). Since that incident, the problem has escalated dramatically. A report published by Punch Newspapers (February 2025), drawing on national data compiled by structural engineers and disaster management officials, documented that building collapse deaths in Nigeria had risen to 1,595 cumulatively as of early 2025, with the highest single-year toll of 62 building collapse incidents recorded nationally in 2022.

Building collapses have been recorded in virtually every major Nigerian city, including Abuja, Port Harcourt, Ibadan, Kano, Oyo, Osun, Akwa Ibom, and Ondo (Nicholas, Dickson & Okeke, 2022). However, Lagos State consistently records the highest frequency of incidents. With 322 documented instances as of 2023, Lagos tops the national table of building collapse by a wide margin, followed distantly by Anambra State with 20 incidents, Oyo State with 19, and Abuja (FCT) with 18 (Estate Intel, citing Sahara News, 2023). The typology of collapsed structures in Nigeria is also instructive: a study by Awe et al. (2025) covering 1984–2023 found that 53.04 percent of reported collapses involved residential buildings, and 14.78 percent involved residential buildings under construction  a combined 67.82 percent attributed to the housing sector alone.Researchers have catalogued the causes of building collapse in Nigeria extensively. Olubi and Adewolu (2018) identified the primary drivers as poor structural design, use of substandard building materials, employment of unqualified construction professionals, and absence of adequate management and supervision on construction sites. Orikpete and Ewim (2023), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of collapse incidents, further highlighted incompetent contractors, faulty construction methodologies, and non-compliance with design standards. Taiwo and Afolami (2011) and Hamma-adama, Iheukwumere, and Kouider (2020) have drawn attention to the role of inadequate empirical knowledge of new construction technologies and the structural complexities of contemporary building forms, particularly among local contractors who lack formal engineering training. These multiple converging factors explain why building collapse in Nigeria has proven so resistant to resolution despite decades of policy attention and regulatory activity.

1.1.3 Lagos State: Scale, Urbanisation, and Structural Risk

Lagos State is Nigeria’s commercial capital and one of Africa’s largest megacities. With an estimated population of approximately 15 million within the city and over 21 million in the greater metropolitan area, Lagos is the third most populous coastal city in the world and the second most populated city in Africa (Ohenhen & Shirzaei, 2022). This extraordinary concentration of population  in a territory of only 3,577 square kilometres  has created immense pressure on the city’s built environment. Housing demand far outstrips supply, driving speculative construction, building conversions, structural alterations, and unauthorised extensions that are frequently carried out without engineering input or regulatory approval. Since 1978, the existing literature reports approximately 300 collapsed buildings in Lagos, resulting in more than 400 deaths, the displacement of 6,000 households, and estimated property losses of approximately USD 3.2 trillion (Okunola, 2021, 2022, as cited in Ohenhen & Shirzaei, 2022). A more granular analysis by Awe et al. (2025), drawing on data from eight separate studies and three news media sources, compiled a dataset of 108 building collapse cases in Lagos alone between 1984 and 2023, with a corresponding death toll of 460 persons. This makes Lagos State not only the most affected state in Nigeria but one of the most affected urban areas in all of Sub-Saharan Africa in terms of building collapse frequency and fatality. The pattern of collapse events in Lagos is closely linked to the city’s rapid and unregulated urban expansion. A statistical analysis of building collapses over the five-year period between 2017 and 2022 by Estate Intel (2022) found that an average of 4.8 building collapses occurred per year in Lagos State, with poor construction identified as the most prevalent single cause, accounting for 36 percent of all incidents. Old and dilapidated buildings accounted for the second highest category at 20 percent. The data also revealed a concerning trend: in 2020, despite the restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 lockdown, Lagos recorded 18 building collapses  40 percent of the national total for that year  suggesting that building collapse in the state is not primarily driven by construction activity levels but rather by deep-seated structural and regulatory deficiencies. The most catastrophic single event in Lagos State’s construction history was the collapse of a 21-storey building under construction on Gerard Road, Ikoyi, on November 1, 2021, which killed 52 persons (Punch Newspapers, 2025). This incident generated significant national and international attention and prompted the Lagos State Government to constitute a panel of inquiry. However, the underlying systemic causes  including approval irregularities, absence of qualified site supervision, and non-compliance with structural designs that the panel identified were found to be consistent with those documented in collapses dating back decades, raising fundamental questions about the effectiveness of institutional responses to this persistent crisis (Ajayi, 2022).

1.1.4 Technical Causes of Building Collapse in Lagos State

The technical causes of building collapse in Lagos State are multifaceted and interconnected. At the structural design level, numerous collapses have been linked to inadequate or erroneous structural calculations, failure to engage qualified structural engineers, use of outdated design methodologies, and non-compliance with the requirements of BS 8110 and the Nigerian National Building Code. Oloyede, Omoogun, and Akinjare (2010) were among the earlier scholars to systematically document these design failures, concluding that many buildings in Lagos are constructed from designs prepared by unqualified draughtsmen rather than licensed structural engineers. The use of substandard construction materials is another pervasive technical cause. Research on building collapse in Nigeria  including studies by Awoyera, Alta, Odetoyan, and Akinwumi (2021)  has documented widespread use of cement with low clinker content, reinforcement bars that do not meet the minimum yield strength requirements of applicable standards, river sand contaminated with silt and organic matter, and concrete mixed at incorrect water-cement ratios, all of which significantly reduce the structural integrity of the finished building. The absence of routine materials testing on most building sites in Lagos means that these deficiencies are rarely detected before being incorporated into load-bearing structural elements. Foundation inadequacy is a particularly critical technical concern in Lagos, where the geological conditions present unique engineering challenges. Ohenhen and Shirzaei (2022), using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) satellite data collected between 2018 and 2021, demonstrated that major parts of Lagos are experiencing land subsidence at rates exceeding 4 mm per year. Their analysis established a causal relationship between differential land subsidence and incidences of building collapse, estimating that between 255 and 4,000 buildings are exposed to high to very high collapse risk over the next 10 to 75 years as a result of this subsidence. This finding introduces a new and previously underappreciated dimension to the causes of building collapse in Lagos  one that demands urgent geotechnical investigation and adaptation of foundation design standards to account for the city’s soft, compressible coastal soils. Structural overloading is another recurrent cause, particularly in buildings that undergo illegal conversion from residential to commercial use or that are extended vertically beyond their originally designed load capacity. The conversion of buildings from lower-density residential use to high-density commercial or institutional use  common in the rapidly changing land-use patterns of Lagos  imposes loads far in excess of those for which the original structural frames were designed. Similarly, the addition of extra floors or rooftop structures to buildings without structural assessment or reinforcement is a well-documented precursor to collapse (Okoye et al., 2023).

1.1.5 Regulatory, Professional and Governance Failures

Beyond the technical causes, the systemic persistence of building collapse in Lagos State reflects deep-rooted failures in the regulatory, professional, and governance frameworks that are supposed to prevent such disasters. The Lagos State Physical Planning Permit Agency (LASPPPA) is responsible for the approval of building plans, while the Lagos State Building Control Agency (LABSCA) is mandated to supervise construction activities and ensure compliance with approved designs and standards. However, research consistently points to a significant gap between the mandate of these agencies and their operational effectiveness. Ajayi (2022), in a rigorous legal and policy analysis published in the Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of Commercial and Property Law, characterises the problem of incessant building collapse in Lagos State as being ‘beyond a legal framework’  meaning that the laws, regulations, and institutional mandates that exist on paper are chronically under-enforced in practice. Contributing factors include corruption in the permit approval process, the operation of political connections that shield non-compliant developers from sanctions, inadequate staffing and equipment for building inspection, and the general culture of impunity that pervades construction activity in the informal sector. Awe et al. (2025) confirmed in their study of Lagos and Abuja that lack of monitoring, use of unqualified contractors (referred to locally as ‘quacks’), and reliance on unapproved building plans were among the leading identified causes of collapse. The professional regulation framework also exhibits critical weaknesses. While the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) and the Council of Registered Builders of Nigeria (CORBON) are constituted to ensure that only qualified professionals practise in the industry, enforcement of these mandates is weak and inconsistent. The majority of building construction in Lagos occurs in the informal sector, where projects are designed and supervised by unregistered practitioners. Nicholas, Dickson, and Okeke (2022) drew attention to the consequent erosion of the architect’s and engineer’s statutory role as leaders of the building team  a role that, when fulfilled by unqualified persons, significantly increases the probability of structural failure.

1.1.6 Consequences and the Imperative for Remediation

The consequences of building collapse in Lagos State are severe and wide-ranging. The most immediate and visible consequence is loss of human life: 460 deaths between 1984 and 2023 in Lagos alone (Awe et al., 2025). Beyond fatalities, building collapse causes serious physical injuries to survivors, psychological trauma to affected families and communities, displacement of households, and the destruction of commercial livelihoods  particularly in markets, workshops, and commercial buildings. Okunola (2021, 2022) estimated total property losses associated with building collapse in Lagos at approximately USD 3.2 trillion an extraordinary figure that underscores the macroeconomic dimensions of this crisis.There is consequently an urgent and well-established imperative for evidence-based remediation. The Lagos State Government has introduced several intervention initiatives, including the Lagos State Building Control Agency (LABSCA)  established under the Lagos State Urban and Regional Planning and Development Law 2010  and the Lagos State Neighbourhood Safety Corps. However, as Ajayi (2022) and Estate Intel (2022) have both documented, the frequency and fatality of building collapse events have not shown a sustained downward trend despite these regulatory responses. A more systematic, research-driven approach to identifying specific causative factors and developing targeted remediation measures is therefore warranted  which is precisely the objective of this study.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the existence of building codes, regulatory agencies, and professional bodies charged with ensuring structural safety in Lagos State, building collapse continues to occur at an alarming rate, claiming lives, destroying property, and undermining public confidence in the construction industry. Between 2020 and 2024 alone, Lagos State recorded at minimum 73 building collapse incidents (Punch Newspapers, 2025; Estate Intel, 2022), averaging more than 14 incidents per year. The 2022 national peak of 62 collapses nationwide  with Lagos accounting for 20 of these  demonstrates that despite regulatory interventions, the problem continues to worsen.

The existing body of research has identified numerous causal factors at a general national level, but there is a relative paucity of systematic, data-driven studies that assess the causes of building collapse specifically in Lagos State using recent and locally sourced empirical data, and that then translate those causal findings into a structured framework of actionable remediation measures. This gap between causal knowledge and practical remediation constitutes the central problem that this study addresses. Without a rigorous, Lagos-specific assessment of causation and a corresponding set of professionally grounded remediation recommendations, policy interventions and engineering practice reforms will continue to be inadequately targeted and therefore ineffective.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to systematically assess the causes of building collapse in Lagos State, Nigeria, and to propose evidence-based and practically implementable remediation measures for reducing the incidence and severity of structural failures in the state’s built environment.

1.4 Specific Objectives

In pursuance of the above aim, this study seeks to:

1. Review and document reported cases of building collapse in Lagos State from 2010 to 2024, identifying their location, building type, number of casualties, and reported causes;

2. Identify and rank the primary technical causes of building collapse in Lagos State, including structural design deficiencies, material substandard quality, foundation inadequacies, and overloading, as perceived by practising engineers and construction professionals;

3. Assess the regulatory and governance factors contributing to building collapse in Lagos State, including planning approval failures, inadequate building inspection, and non-enforcement of building codes;

4. Evaluate the human factors associated with building collapse, including the use of unqualified professionals, poor site supervision, and non-compliance with approved building plans;

5. Propose a comprehensive, prioritised framework of remediation measures covering engineering design improvement, materials quality control, regulatory reform, and professional development, validated by practising engineers in Lagos State.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions guide this study:

6. What is the frequency, spatial distribution, and typological profile of building collapse incidents in Lagos State between 2010 and 2024?

7. What are the primary technical, regulatory, human, and environmental causes of building collapse in Lagos State as identified and ranked by practising civil and structural engineers?

8. To what extent do failures in the building plan approval and construction supervision processes of Lagos State regulatory agencies contribute to building collapse?

9. What remediation measures — in the domains of engineering design, materials quality control, site supervision, regulation, and professional practice — are considered most effective by engineering professionals in preventing building collapse in Lagos State?

1.6 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses are formulated for empirical testing:

10. H₀₁: There is no statistically significant relationship between the use of substandard construction materials and the incidence of building collapse in Lagos State.

11. H₀₂: There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of practising civil engineers and registered builders regarding the primary causes of building collapse in Lagos State.

12. H₀₃: There is no statistically significant relationship between inadequate regulatory enforcement by Lagos State building control agencies and the frequency of building collapse incidents.

1.7 Scope and Delimitations of the Study

This study focuses specifically on building collapse incidents in Lagos State, Nigeria, covering the period from 2010 to 2024. The geographical scope is limited to Lagos State, with particular attention to high-density districts such as Lagos Island, Lagos Mainland, Surulere, Mushin, Alimosho, and Ojo Local Government Areas, where the frequency of building collapse has been consistently highest. The study does not extend to other states of Nigeria, although comparative data from national studies are referenced for context.The population for the primary survey component of the study consists of civil engineers, structural engineers, architects, and registered builders practising in Lagos State who are registered with the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE), the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN), or the Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA). The study does not include construction workers, developers, or building occupants as primary survey respondents, although their perspectives are acknowledged in the literature review. Laboratory materials testing is not part of the scope of this study; the study is primarily survey-based and documentary in methodology.

1.8 Significance of the Study

This study makes a significant contribution to civil and structural engineering knowledge on building collapse in Nigeria in several important respects. First, it provides an updated and comprehensive assessment of building collapse causation in Lagos State using data from the most recent ten-year period (2014–2024), complementing and extending the work of earlier scholars such as Olubi and Adewolu (2018), Orikpete and Ewim (2023), and Ohenhen and Shirzaei (2022). Second, it bridges the gap between causal documentation and remediation prescription  an area that previous studies have addressed only partially. Third, the study provides a practical, validated remediation framework that is directly applicable to policy development by the Lagos State Government, professional guidance by COREN, CORBON, and the NIA, and engineering practice improvement by construction firms operating in Lagos. Fourth, it contributes to the academic literature on structural failure in rapidly urbanising African cities, providing a well-documented, data-rich case study that will be valuable to researchers and policymakers across Sub-Saharan Africa who are grappling with analogous challenges. Finally, for the student researcher, this study develops competencies in structured survey methodology, documentary analysis, and evidence-based engineering recommendation  skills of lasting professional value.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

• Building Collapse: The sudden or progressive failure of a building structure or a significant part thereof, resulting in partial or total loss of structural integrity, typically leading to physical damage, injury, or death.

• Structural Failure: The condition in which a load-bearing structural element  beam, column, slab, wall, or foundation  can no longer safely carry the design load, whether due to material failure, overloading, design error, or deterioration.

• Substandard Materials: Construction materials that do not conform to the minimum quality requirements of applicable standards such as NIS 444 (Portland cement), BS 4449 (reinforcement bars), or ASTM standards for aggregates and concrete.

• Remediation Measures: Technical, administrative, regulatory, and professional interventions designed to prevent, reduce, or eliminate the risk of building collapse in new and existing structures.

• Building Code: A set of legally enforceable rules and standards specifying the minimum requirements for the design, construction, alteration, and maintenance of buildings to ensure public safety.

• COREN: Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria  the statutory body that regulates engineering practice and registers engineers in Nigeria.

• LASPPPA: Lagos State Physical Planning Permit Agency  the body responsible for granting building plan approvals in Lagos State.

• LABSCA: Lagos State Building Control Agency  the body responsible for supervising construction activities and enforcing building control regulations in Lagos State.

• Geotechnical Investigation: Engineering investigation of soil and ground conditions at a construction site to determine bearing capacity, settlement potential, and suitability for proposed foundations.

• Relative Importance Index (RII): A statistical tool used in construction management and engineering research to rank the relative significance of identified factors based on respondent ratings on a Likert scale.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

This research project is organised into five chapters. Chapter One  the present chapter  provides a comprehensive introduction to the study, covering the background of the study grounded in recent scholarly literature, the statement of the problem, the aim and specific objectives, research questions and hypotheses, scope and delimitations, significance, key terms, and the organisation of the work.

Chapter Two presents a detailed review of literature on building collapse in Nigeria and Lagos State, examining theoretical frameworks of structural failure, empirical studies of collapse causation, the legal and regulatory framework for building control in Lagos State, and the international evidence base for collapse remediation. Chapter Three describes the research methodology, including the research design, study area, population, sampling technique, instruments for data collection, and methods of data analysis.

Chapter Four presents the results and discussion, analysing the questionnaire data, documentary evidence, and case studies of selected building collapse incidents to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. Chapter Five presents the conclusion, summarising the key findings, proposing the remediation framework, stating the limitations of the study, and making recommendations for engineering practice, regulatory policy, and future research. A comprehensive list of References in APA 7th Edition format follows Chapter Five.

 

REFERENCES

(All references are presented in APA 7th Edition format)

Ajayi, O. O. (2022). Incessant building collapse in Lagos State, Nigeria: Beyond a legal framework. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of Commercial and Property Law, 9(1), 45–68.

Awe, O., Adewale, B., Okonkwo, I., & Bello, M. (2025). Building collapse in Abuja and Lagos between 1984 and 2023: Assessing structural vulnerabilities to prevent reoccurrence. World Journal of Innovation and Modern Technology, 9(2), 1–27. https://www.iiardjournals.org

Awoyera, P. O., Alta, J., Odetoyan, A., & Akinwumi, I. I. (2021). Building collapse in Nigeria during recent years: Causes, effects and way forward. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1036(1), 012021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/1036/1/012021

Ayedun, C. A., Durodola, O. D., & Akinjare, O. A. (2011). An empirical ascertainment of the causes of building failure and collapse in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1), 313–322.

Estate Intel. (2022). Lagos State has seen an alarming rate of 1 building collapse every two months in the last 6 months. Estate Intel Market Research. https://estateintel.com/insights/lagos-state-has-seen-an-alarming-rate

Hamma-adama, M., Iheukwumere, O., & Kouider, T. (2020). Factors responsible for building failures and collapses in Nigeria. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 10(4), 313–332. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojce.2020.104025

Nicholas, O. I., Dickson, N. M., & Okeke, F. O. (2022). Building collapse in Nigeria and its consequences on the architect’s role as the leader of the building team. Jordan Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 13(1), 16–24.

Ohenhen, L. O., & Shirzaei, M. (2022). Land subsidence hazard and building collapse risk in the coastal city of Lagos, West Africa. GeoHealth, 6(12), e2022GH000721. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GH000721

Okoye, I., Idowu, T., Nwoke, E., & Okonkwo, C. (2023). Review of critical causes and their impact on building collapse in Nigeria (1973–2022). NIPES Journal of Science and Technology Research, 5(3), 1–18. https://journals.nipes.org

Olagunju, R. E., Aremu, S. C., & Ogundele, J. (2013). Incessant building collapse in Nigeria: An architect’s overview. Civil and Environmental Research, 3(4), 49–54.

Olubi, O. E., & Adewolu, T. O. (2018). Assessment of building collapse in Nigeria: Causes, effects and mitigation. Civil and Environmental Research, 10(6), 1–9.

Oloyede, S. A., Omoogun, C. B., & Akinjare, O. A. (2010). Tackling causes of frequent building collapse in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(3), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v3n3p127

Orikpete, O. F., & Ewim, D. R. E. (2023). Investigating the root causes of recurring building collapse in Nigeria: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2(1), 1–10.

Punch Newspapers. (2025, February 2). Building collapse deaths rise to 1,595 – report. Punch Nigeria. https://punchng.com/building-collapse-deaths-rise-to-1595-report/

Taiwo, A. A., & Afolami, A. J. (2011). Causes and effects of building collapse. Elixir International Journal, 40, 5530–5533.

Windapo, A. O., & Rotimi, J. O. B. (2012). Contemporary issues in building collapse and its implications for sustainable development. Buildings, 2(3), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings2030283

— End of Chapter One —

B.Eng Final Year Project | Civil Engineering | Assessment of Causes of Building Collapse in Lagos State