CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Adult literacy programmes can only benefit those who take part in them. The design, funding and staffing of a programme matter little if adults do not enrol, attend regularly and persist to completion. For this reason, participation is treated in the international literature as a central concern of adult learning and education. The Fourth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education examined participation, equity and inclusion and argued that focus on participation is key to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, calling for policies that are informed by evidence on who participates and who does not (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning [UIL], 2019). The report groups the obstacles to participation into institutional, situational and dispositional barriers, a framework that has since been widely used in adult education research (Belete et al., 2022; UIL, 2019). Institutional barriers arise from the way programmes are organised, for example, inconvenient schedules, distant venues and poor facilities. Situational barriers arise from the learner’s circumstances, such as poverty, workload, family responsibilities and distance. Dispositional barriers relate to attitudes, self-perception and motivation, including shame at learning as an adult.

Belete et al. (2022), reviewing literature on community learning centres in Asia and Africa, report low levels of adult participation in general and especially low participation among vulnerable and excluded groups, who find it difficult to cross these barriers. They note that in Africa, facilitators often travel long distances, rural infrastructure is poor and services cannot reach all communities in need. Akintolu et al. (2022), in their study of adult community learning centres in KwaZulu-Natal, similarly found that adult learners, facilitators and government factors all inhibited the progress of the centres.

The Nigerian situation reflects these global patterns. The national adult literacy rate is estimated at about 70.4 per cent (World Bank, 2025), but estimates differ across sources and regions, and the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) has stated that its last national literacy data date from 2010 (“Federal Government directs NMEC,” 2026). The National Bureau of Statistics has reported that nearly 80 million Nigerians are non-literate (allAfrica, 2025). Many of these adults live in rural communities where farming, fishing, petty trading and forest-based livelihoods absorb much of their time, where schools and learning centres are far apart, and where social expectations may discourage adult learning.

Cross River South Senatorial District, in the southern part of Cross River State, includes rural communities in local government areas with forest, riverine and coastal settings. In such communities, poor roads, seasonal farming cycles, limited electricity, low household incomes and long distances to centres are likely to shape whether adults enrol in literacy classes. Cultural attitudes towards adult learning, the availability and motivation of facilitators, and the relevance of the curriculum to adults’ daily activities may also matter. Yet the actual factors that influence participation in this specific setting have not been systematically studied. The present study fills this gap by identifying and analysing the factors that affect participation in adult literacy programmes in rural communities of Cross River South Senatorial District.

The importance of understanding participation also derives from a broader concern with equity. UNESCO’s Marrakech Framework for Action commits states to widening access to adult learning, especially for disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2022). Nkansah (2022) and Kolawole and Pusoetsile (2022) show that literacy programmes do not always deliver the benefits expected of them, which raises the stakes of ensuring that the right people are reached and retained and that programmes are well matched to learners’ circumstances. Ali (2024) and Awopetu (2025) both stress that education, including adult education, is a channel for socio-economic advancement that depends on people being able to take part.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the existence of adult literacy centres and campaigns in Cross River State, illiteracy remains a challenge in many rural communities. Programme records and field observations suggest that many adults who could benefit from literacy classes do not enrol, and that some who enrol attend irregularly or drop out. Low participation reduces the reach and return on public and donor investment, and it perpetuates the poverty and exclusion that literacy programmes are designed to reduce.

The literature identifies institutional, situational and dispositional barriers to participation (UIL, 2019; Belete et al., 2022), and studies of learning centres in other countries point to challenges linked to learners, facilitators and governments (Akintolu et al., 2022). However, it is not known which of these factors are most important for rural adults in Cross River South Senatorial District, how far they differ by gender, age, occupation or community, or how they interact. In the absence of such evidence, efforts to raise participation risk being poorly targeted, for example by spending on publicity when the real barriers are distance, timing or the relevance of the curriculum.

The problem of this study is therefore that the factors affecting adults’ participation in literacy programmes in rural communities of Cross River South Senatorial District are not empirically established, leaving programme planners without a firm basis for designing strategies to increase enrolment, attendance and retention.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to identify the factors affecting participation in adult literacy programmes in rural communities of Cross River South Senatorial District. The specific objectives are to:

1. determine the extent to which institutional factors (such as location, timing, facilities and facilitators) affect participation;

2. examine the influence of situational factors on participation;

3. assess the influence of dispositional and socio-cultural factors on participation;

4. find out whether participation differs by gender, age and occupation; and

5. suggest strategies for increasing participation of rural adults in literacy programmes.

1.4 Research Questions

1. To what extent do institutional factors affect participation in adult literacy programmes in the rural communities studied?

2. How do situational factors influence adults’ participation?

3. How do dispositional and socio-cultural factors influence adults’ participation?

4. Does participation differ by gender, age and occupation?

5. What strategies can increase participation in adult literacy programmes in the area?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀₁: Institutional factors have no significant effect on participation in adult literacy programmes in rural communities of Cross River South Senatorial District.

H₀₂: Situational factors have no significant effect on participation in adult literacy programmes.

H₀₃: Dispositional and socio-cultural factors have no significant effect on participation in adult literacy programmes.

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in the factors affecting participation between male and female adults.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Rural adults. By identifying obstacles to participation, the study can lead to changes that make classes more accessible and more relevant, benefiting those who have been left out.

Facilitators and programme managers. They will gain evidence on scheduling, venues, teaching approaches and outreach that can improve enrolment and retention.

The Cross River State Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education and NMEC. The findings can support planning and the targeting of resources, and can feed into the local data that NMEC has said it lacks (“Federal Government directs NMEC,” 2026).

Community leaders and traditional institutions. Village heads, women’s groups and religious leaders can use the findings in mobilisation efforts to encourage adults to enrol.

Non-governmental organisations and development partners. The evidence will help them design interventions responsive to the barriers rural adults actually face.

Researchers. The study enriches the limited literature on participation in adult literacy in south-eastern Nigeria and offers a framework, drawn from UIL (2019), that can be applied in other regions.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is confined to rural communities in Cross River South Senatorial District of Cross River State. It covers adults aged 18 and above, comprising both learners currently enrolled in literacy programmes and eligible adults who are not participating, together with facilitators and community leaders. The study examines three groups of factors (institutional, situational and dispositional or socio-cultural) and their association with participation, measured by enrolment, attendance and persistence. It does not evaluate learning outcomes or the quality of instruction, except where these are mentioned by respondents as reasons for participation or non-participation.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Rural communities in the district are difficult to reach, especially in riverine and forest areas and during the rainy season, so the sample may under-represent the most remote settlements. Non-participants may be less easy to identify and interview than enrolled learners. Respondents with little formal education may need instruments to be translated into local languages, which can affect the consistency of responses. Some respondents may give socially desirable answers when asked about attitudes to adult learning. The researcher addressed these issues through the use of trained local research assistants, pre-testing of the instrument and assurances of confidentiality.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Participation: the enrolment, regular attendance and continued involvement of an adult in a literacy programme until completion.

Adult literacy programme: an organised non-formal education programme that teaches adults to read, write and use basic numeracy.

Institutional barriers: obstacles arising from how programmes are organised and delivered, such as location, schedule, facilities, materials and facilitators (UIL, 2019).

Situational barriers: obstacles arising from learners’ life circumstances, such as poverty, occupation, family responsibilities and distance.

Dispositional barriers: obstacles relating to learners’ attitudes, beliefs, self-image and motivation.

Rural community: a settlement outside urban centres whose people mainly depend on farming, fishing, forest products and small-scale trading.

Cross River South Senatorial District: the senatorial district in the southern part of Cross River State that forms the study area.

References

Akintolu, M., Uleanya, C., & Letseka, M. (2022). Examining key challenges in the programmes of adult community learning centres in KwaZulu-Natal. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211070307

Ali, M. A. (2024). Adult education as an alternative option for accelerated socio-economic development of Nigeria. Journal of Continuing and Development Education, 4(1), 183–197. https://journalcde.com/index.php/jcde/article/view/123

allAfrica. (2025, August 1). Nigeria: Basic education – Govt targets 80 million non-literate youths and adults. https://allafrica.com/stories/202508010056.html

Awopetu, A. (2025). Educational and economic empowerment of women for sustainable development in Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(3), 5287–5293.

Belete, S., Duke, C., Hinzen, H., et al. (2022). Community learning centres (CLCs) for adult learning and education (ALE): Development in and by communities. International Review of Education, 68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-022-09954-w

Federal Government directs NMEC to enhance literacy data collection for adults and youths. (2026). Nigeria News Digest. https://www.nigerianewsdigest.com/federal-government-directs-nmec-to-enhance-literacy-data-collection-for-adults-and-youths/

Kolawole, O. D., & Pusoetsile, T. (2022). What difference does literacy make among adult learners? Impact of adult basic education programme in a rural community in Botswana. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 28(1), 227–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211007495

Nkansah, T. (2022). The role of adult literacy in community development in Ghana: Perceptions and experiences of two rural communities. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/25166026221110728

UNESCO. (2022). Marrakech Framework for Action: Harnessing the transformational power of adult learning and education (Seventh International Conference on Adult Education). UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2019). 4th global report on adult learning and education: Leave no one behind – Participation, equity and inclusion. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.