JUSTICE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CONCEPTIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND THEORIES OF DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

ABSTRACT

Environmental sustainability and social (or distributive) justice are both widely viewed as important and desirable societal goals. However, it cannot be taken for granted that the two objectives are fully compatible. This study investigates the intricate relationship between these two urgent priorities. Environmental sustainability is treated as a contested concept, and three different conceptions of it are examined and outlined in detail. These conceptions are then analyzed through the lens of core distributive justice questions: Among whom or what should distribution occur? What exactly should be distributed? And what should the guiding principle of distribution be? The book offers a critical assessment of the assertions made by the “environmental-justice” and “sustainable-development” movements that social justice and environmental sustainability form part of the same virtuous cycle. It argues that radical environmental demands focused on preserving “nature” are only partially advanced when framed in the language of justice. The study concludes that intergenerational justice represents the area where distributive justice agendas and sustainability objectives align most closely.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The concept of environmental justice has become a major focus for scholars across various academic disciplines. Both the idea itself and the range of topics it covers have grown significantly over the past two decades. The discourse surrounding environmental justice has clearly expanded well beyond its original emphasis on the unequal distribution of environmental risks. This study examines that evolution in three important respects. First, it explores how pioneering work on environmental justice moved past narrow boundaries. The concept challenged conventional understandings of what constitutes the “environment,” investigated multiple causes behind the creation of environmental injustices, and demonstrated the value of diverse and pluralistic approaches to social justice.

In more recent years, the discourse has continued to broaden in numerous directions. Scholarly reflections have highlighted a spatial expansion of the term both horizontally, to encompass a wider array of issues, and vertically, to address the genuinely global dimensions of environmental injustices (Sze and London 2008; Walker 2009).

This study contends that the environmental justice framework has been extended even further through its application to climate change and climate justice, as well as through rising concerns and activism related to local food systems and energy issues, which have become focal points for some environmental justice organizations. Climate change has compelled environmental justice thinking to adopt broader perspectives on both the environment and justice. The increasing emphasis on sustainable materialism reflects a more advanced analysis of power dynamics and injustice by environmental justice movements, along with a significant advancement in transformative politics and practice. Both developments push the notion of environmental justice into new territory, where the environment and nature are seen as foundational conditions that enable social justice.

Although it was previously noted (Schlosberg 2004) that theories of environmental justice and related academic scholarship were often disconnected from practical innovations emerging from movements and theoretical developments, the expanded and deepened research of the past decade demonstrates far greater engagement with these innovations.

According to Leuenberger, environmental sustainability presents an opportunity to move away from purely market-driven decision-making toward approaches that deliver long-term benefits shared among multiple stakeholders. Additionally, Leuenberger and Wakin’s work “Sustainable Development in Public Administration Planning: An Exploration of Social Justice, Equity and Citizen Inclusion” investigates how sustainable development can serve as a mechanism for enhancing social justice, equity, and citizen participation in public administration decisions. Their paper emphasizes that meaningful citizen involvement, equity, and social justice must be integral components of sustainable development. Achieving long-term transformation may require fundamental systemic changes rather than merely incremental adjustments.

A definition of a steady-state society can potentially be incorporated into sustainability frameworks. Ophuls and Boyan characterize a steady-state society as one that maintains a healthy biosphere, practices careful resource management, imposes self-limitations on consumption, uses long-term goals to direct short-term decisions, and adopts an overall attitude of trusteeship toward future generations. Similarities between the sustainability of economic systems and environmental systems become apparent when considering the concept of carrying capacity (Catton and Dunlap; Rees). Carrying capacity refers to the maximum level of human activity that an environment can support indefinitely without reducing its ability to sustain the same level in the future. Human load depends not only on population size but also on per capita resource use. The constraints of environmental carrying capacity are especially challenging in the United States, where growing population numbers, shifting demographic profiles, and high per capita consumption are placing increasing pressure on ecological resources and natural capital at both national and global scales.

Elliot, Wackernagel and Rees, and Rees have described the links between sustainability and natural capital as follows: Sustainability requires that nature’s capital be consumed no faster than it can be naturally replenished. However, trade and technology have allowed humanity to exploit nature well beyond sustainable levels and at an accelerating pace, such that current consumption exceeds natural income (the “interest” on our natural capital). This situation leaves future generations with diminished capital and reduced productive potential, even as global population and material aspirations continue to rise (Wright and Lund).

1.2 Statement of Problem

The natural environment has emerged as a critical area for examining questions of justice (Clayton & Müller, 2013; Clayton & Opotow, 2003). Research on environmental justice gained prominence in the 1970s amid the rise of the New Environmental Paradigm (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978). By the 1990s, it had developed into a substantial research domain within environmental psychology (Clayton, 1996; Horwitz, 1994; Montada & Kals, 1995; Opotow & Clayton, 1994). Among the general public, increasing awareness of shortages in essential environmental resources such as clean water and arable land has heightened attention to how these resources are allocated (Hegtvedt & Flinn, 2000; Lerner, 1981; Syme, 2012; see also UNESCO, 2006).

Advances in scientific understanding of the interconnectedness of ecosystem components have made people more aware of the causal relationships between human actions and their environmental impacts. This awareness leads to ethical evaluations of such actions, incorporating both justice considerations and notions of responsibility. Most significantly, the rapid pace of ecological change provides a tangible reference for perceiving current conditions as unjust. The exponential increase in human population, accompanied by urban expansion and pollution, is altering the quality of the natural environment and climate so quickly that individuals can observe these changes within their own lifetimes and even foresee further deterioration.

The heightened relevance of justice in addressing environmental challenges aligns with the widespread belief that moral or ethical principles should govern the distribution and treatment of environmental entities (Hussar & Horvath, 2011; Kahn, 2001; Kempton, Boster, & Hartley, 1995). Nevertheless, existing models of justice cannot be straightforwardly applied to environmental concerns. Environmental goods and services differ fundamentally from resources like financial benefits that have traditionally been the focus of justice studies. Decisions made today will affect people in future generations. Actions taken in specific locations can produce consequences that spread across geographic and political boundaries. The indivisible nature of many environmental resources and the intricate interdependence of ecosystems prevent the clear allocation of individual or even national shares of environmental assets for unrestricted use. Consequently, environmental issues represent a particularly rich and complex domain for justice researchers. Considerations of environmental justice compel us to rethink justice in contexts that are not strictly bounded by time, space, or scale.

A justice-oriented perspective on environmental problems helps explain why these issues are so fiercely contested and emotionally charged. Conversely, an environmental lens on justice research reveals limitations in current theoretical frameworks. By surveying the body of research and literature on justice and the natural environment in this chapter, the aim is to generate fresh questions that stimulate further inquiry in this field. This chapter reviews empirical studies on individual justice judgments, justice-related emotions (such as indignation and outrage), and their consequences for attitudes and behavior. The research scope extends from broad questions of moral inclusion to detailed examinations of local environmental conflicts through a justice framework. This project addresses justice judgments concerning the behaviors and attitudes of individuals and groups across political, economic, and social spheres, as well as the role of political instruments that influence ecologically significant behaviors and decisions.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of this research is to analyze justice and the environment, with a focus on conceptions of environmental sustainability and theories of distributive justice. The following specific objectives have been established:

1. To evaluate the concept of justice and the environment.

2. To assess environmental sustainability and theories of distributive justice.

3. To examine justice judgments in relation to behavior and attitudes, as well as issues concerning political instruments that affect environmentally relevant behaviors and decisions.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the concept of justice and the environment?

2. What is environmental sustainability, and what are the theories of distributive justice?

3. What are justice judgments with regard to behavior and attitudes, and what issues surround political instruments that influence environmentally relevant behaviors and decisions?

1.5 Significance of Study

This research project can be utilized by governments at both federal and state levels through relevant ministries, including the Ministries of Environment, Education, Health, and Information. It will assist these ministries in policy formulation particularly in public education efforts and in the development of laws aimed at promoting human health and protecting the environment, with special emphasis on issues of justice and the environment. The work will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and serve as a valuable reference for future researchers and studies.

1.6 Scope of Study

The research focuses on justice and the environment, specifically conceptions of environmental sustainability and theories of distributive justice. It examines justice judgments related to the behavior and attitudes of individuals and groups within political, economic, and social domains, along with issues involving political instruments that affect ecologically relevant behaviors and decisions.

1.7 Definition of Terms

Distributive Justice: This refers to the fair allocation of goods within a society according to principles of social justice. A society in which inequalities in outcomes do not arise from unjust structures would be considered one guided by the principles of distributive justice.

Environmental Sustainability: This is defined as responsible interaction with the environment that prevents the depletion or degradation of natural resources, thereby preserving long-term environmental quality.

Environment: This refers to the complete surroundings of humans that sustain life.