STABILIZATION OF LATERITIC SOIL USING CEMENT AND LIME FOR ROAD SUB-BASE CONSTRUCTION
ABSTRACT
Lateritic soils are widespread across tropical and subtropical regions and are frequently encountered as construction materials for road pavements in developing countries. Despite their abundance, untreated lateritic soils often fail to meet the minimum engineering requirements for road sub-base construction, owing to their high plasticity, variable compressibility, low shear strength, and sensitivity to moisture fluctuations. This study investigates the stabilization of lateritic soil using Portland cement and hydrated lime individually and in combination as a strategy for improving geotechnical properties to meet the threshold requirements for road sub-base construction. The experimental approach involved collection of lateritic soil samples from borrow pits, followed by a series of geotechnical laboratory tests including Atterberg limits, particle size distribution, specific gravity, compaction characteristics, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests. Stabilizing additives comprising cement (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10%) and lime (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) were applied both independently and in combined proportions. Results show that the addition of cement and lime progressively reduced the plasticity index, increased the maximum dry density, optimized moisture content, and significantly improved both CBR and UCS values. The combined application of cement and lime yielded the most significant improvement in bearing capacity. These findings confirm that cement-lime stabilization is an economically viable and technically effective approach for improving sub-standard lateritic soils for use as sub-base materials in road construction. The study contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting locally available stabilizers as alternatives to expensive conventional aggregates in highway engineering in developing nations.
Keywords: Lateritic soil, Cement stabilization, Lime stabilization, Sub-base construction, California Bearing Ratio, Geotechnical properties, Road construction, Tropical soils
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Road infrastructure constitutes the backbone of socioeconomic development in any nation, facilitating trade, human movement, and access to essential services such as healthcare, education, and markets. In developing countries particularly those in sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Latin America the quality of road networks remains a persistent challenge that directly undermines national productivity and the quality of life for rural and peri-urban communities. At the core of this challenge lies a fundamental geotechnical problem: the widespread prevalence of lateritic soils, which, in their natural state, often fail to meet the engineering standards required for road pavement construction. Lateritic soils cover an estimated 33% of the total land surface area of the world, with the most extensive deposits concentrated in tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America (Santha Kumar et al., 2022). Their ubiquity in road construction contexts, combined with their engineering limitations, has motivated decades of research into cost-effective methods of ground improvement and soil stabilization. Laterite and lateritic soils are the products of intense tropical weathering a geochemical process known as laterization driven by high temperatures, abundant rainfall, and alternating wet and dry seasons. This process causes the progressive leaching of silica, bases, and soluble constituents from the parent rock, while iron and aluminum oxides are retained and concentrated in the residual material (Foko Tamba et al., 2023). The resulting soils are characterized by a distinctive reddish to yellowish-brown coloration, high iron oxide content (Fe2O3), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and kaolinite clay minerals. Geochemical analyses of lateritic soils in Central Cameroon, for instance, have revealed compositions of approximately 41% Fe2O3, 35% SiO2, and 21% Al2O3 by weight, with kaolinite, goethite, quartz, and magnetite as the principal mineral phases (Foko Tamba et al., 2023). These mineralogical characteristics endow lateritic soils with unique engineering behavior that differs markedly from temperate-zone soils and which cannot always be adequately assessed using standard geotechnical classification systems developed for non-tropical materials. From an engineering standpoint, lateritic soils present a complex and often contradictory profile. While some lateritic gravels exhibit favorable bearing capacity and have been used successfully as road sub-base and base materials in tropical countries, a large proportion of lateritic soils particularly the finer-grained, clay-rich varieties exhibit high plasticity indices, swelling potential, moisture sensitivity, poor compaction response, and low California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values that render them unsuitable for direct use in pavement layers without treatment (Akinbuluma et al., 2025; Wahab et al., 2021). Akinbuluma et al. (2025) observed that African lateritic soils often experience pavement failure due to high moisture sensitivity, poor compaction characteristics, and variable shear strength, underscoring the need for effective stabilization interventions. Similarly, a study in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, found that while some lateritic soils can meet sub-base specifications, road construction in humid tropical environments is compounded by high annual rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm, frequent flooding, erosion hazards, and climate-induced moisture variations that reduce shear strength and accelerate pavement deterioration (Science Publishing Group, 2025).The shortage of good-quality, durable materials for pavement structures including base, sub-base, and subgrade layers is one of the most persistent challenges in highway engineering in developing nations (Okonkwo et al., 2022). Conventional solutions often involve quarrying and transporting high-quality rock aggregates from remote locations, a practice that significantly escalates project costs, prolongs construction timelines, and contributes to environmental degradation through carbon emissions and habitat destruction. In Myanmar, for instance, the high cost of crushed rock aggregates from Mokepalin located 92 miles from Yangon has been identified as a major economic burden in road construction, prompting researchers to investigate locally available lateritic soils as viable alternatives (Innovation in Engineering, 2025). This scenario is replicated across much of the developing world, where the economic and logistical constraints of importing high-grade aggregates make local soil stabilization not merely an academic exercise, but a practical and economic necessity. Soil stabilization refers to the physical, chemical, or biological modification of soil properties to improve its strength, durability, compressibility, and suitability for engineering applications. Among the various stabilization methods available including mechanical compaction, chemical treatment, thermal treatment, and reinforcement with geosynthetics chemical stabilization using cementitious binders such as Portland cement and hydrated lime has emerged as the most widely studied and applied technique for improving lateritic soils in road construction contexts (Al Shorman, 2023; Ahmed et al., 2024). Both cement and lime are commercially available, relatively affordable, and have well-documented reaction mechanisms with clay soils, making them practical choices for field application in developing countries. Portland cement stabilization operates primarily through hydration reactions. When cement is mixed with soil and water, the calcium silicate and calcium aluminate compounds in the cement react with water to produce calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) gels, which bind soil particles together and produce a more rigid, cohesive mass with improved compressive strength and load-bearing capacity (Wahab et al., 2021). Studies have consistently demonstrated that increasing cement content in lateritic soils leads to reductions in plasticity index, decreases in optimum moisture content (OMC), increases in maximum dry density (MDD), and significant gains in CBR and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) (Okonkwo et al., 2022; Rozman et al., 2025). A study on cement-stabilized lateritic soil in Malaysia for low-volume road construction found that cement treatment improved mechanical properties substantially, including compaction, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity, making it suitable for sub-base construction (Rozman et al., 2025). Lime stabilization, on the other hand, involves two distinct reaction mechanisms. The immediate reaction involves the exchange of calcium ions from lime with cations adsorbed on the surfaces of clay particles, causing flocculation and agglomeration of the clay particles. This ion exchange reduces the plasticity of the soil, lowers the liquid limit, increases the plastic limit, and reduces the potential for swelling (Cherian & Arnepalli, 2015, as cited in Rozman et al., 2025). The long-term pozzolanic reaction is equally important: the hydroxyl ions released from calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) cause dissolution of silica and alumina from the soil particles. These dissolved compounds then react with calcium ions in the lime to produce secondary cementitious compounds calcium silicate hydrates (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), and calcium aluminate silicate hydrates (CASH) that link soil particles together and gradually increase the strength and stiffness of the stabilized material (ScienceDirect, 2021). Research in tropical Sudan demonstrated that lime stabilization effectively reduced the plasticity index and improved the bearing capacity of lateritic soils, with the pozzolanic reaction contributing to sustained strength development over time (ScienceDirect, 2021).The combined application of cement and lime in lateritic soil stabilization has attracted increasing research attention because the two materials can complement each other’s mechanisms. Lime is highly effective in reducing plasticity and preparing the soil matrix for cementitious reactions, while cement provides rapid and robust strength gain. Several studies have demonstrated that the combination of lime and cement in optimal proportions yields superior engineering properties compared to either additive used alone (Etim et al., 2024; Mostafa et al., 2024). Etim et al. (2024) found that lateritic soil stabilized with a lime and periwinkle shell ash (PSA) admixture showed significant improvements in CBR and UCS, supporting the principle that combined stabilizers can enhance overall performance. A geotechnical evaluation of lateritic soil stabilized with metakaolin and lime in Nigeria concluded that the ideal admixture for road construction was 6% lime combined with 6% metakaolin, which converted the soil classification from a subgrade material to one suitable for base and sub-base course applications (FUW Trends Journal, 2024).The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) remains the most widely used index in the design and evaluation of road pavement layers, particularly for sub-base materials. Standard specifications in most countries require CBR values of 30% or more for sub-base construction, while some specifications demand CBR values of 60% or higher for base course materials (Foko Tamba et al., 2023). However, many naturally occurring lateritic soils in tropical regions fail to achieve these thresholds without treatment. A study of lateritic soil from Agu-Awka in Anambra State, Nigeria, found a natural CBR value of only 24%, which was insufficient for sub-base or base course applications, necessitating stabilization (Okonkwo et al., 2022). Similarly, geotechnical assessments in Akwa Ibom State recorded half-soaked CBR values ranging from 33.30% to 65.40%, with fully soaked values as low as 15.00%, underscoring the significant vulnerability of these soils to moisture ingress and the importance of stabilization for long-term pavement performance (Science Publishing Group, 2025). Beyond the technical imperatives, there are strong economic and environmental arguments for developing locally sourced stabilization solutions. The increasing cost of conventional aggregates, the logistical challenges of long-haul transport, and the growing emphasis on sustainable construction practices and circular economy principles have all contributed to renewed interest in chemical stabilization using industrial byproducts and local materials (Obianyo et al., 2024; Almeida et al., 2024). Researchers have explored an increasingly diverse range of supplementary stabilizers including fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, sawdust ash, pulverized snail shell, periwinkle shell ash, biopolymers, and waste plastics either as partial replacements for or supplements to cement and lime (Springer Nature, 2024; Ahmed et al., 2024). These investigations reflect a broader paradigm shift towards sustainable highway engineering, in which locally available and low-carbon materials are harnessed to reduce construction costs and environmental footprints while maintaining or improving pavement performance. From the perspective of pavement engineering, the sub-base layer plays a critical structural role. Positioned between the subgrade and the road base, the sub-base distributes traffic-induced stresses over a wider area, prevents the upward migration of fine subgrade particles (pumping), provides a working platform during construction, and protects the subgrade from frost action and moisture damage. The performance of the sub-base layer is therefore pivotal to the overall durability and serviceability of the pavement structure. Given the widespread availability of lateritic soils across tropical regions and the persistent inadequacy of many naturally occurring deposits for sub-base applications, research into effective, affordable, and environmentally appropriate stabilization strategies is of urgent relevance to practitioners and policymakers in road infrastructure development. Despite the considerable volume of research on cement and lime stabilization of lateritic soils, significant knowledge gaps remain with respect to the optimal combinations of these two additives for specific soil types, curing conditions, and performance requirements. Studies have reported varied and sometimes conflicting findings regarding the relative effectiveness of cement versus lime at different dosage levels, the synergistic effects of their combined application, and the long-term durability of stabilized layers under field conditions. Moreover, many existing studies are site-specific, and the extrapolation of their findings to other contexts requires careful consideration of local soil mineralogy, climate, and traffic loading conditions. This study is therefore motivated by the need to systematically investigate the influence of varying proportions of Portland cement and hydrated lime both individually and in combination on the geotechnical and strength properties of locally sourced lateritic soil, with the objective of identifying optimal stabilizer contents for road sub-base construction.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Lateritic soils dominate the subsurface geology of many developing countries in tropical regions, yet a substantial proportion of these soils fail to meet the engineering requirements for road pavement construction in their natural state. The consequence is a persistent dilemma for road engineers and transport planners: use sub-standard local materials that lead to early pavement failure, or incur the high financial and environmental costs of importing conventional aggregates from distant quarries. This dilemma is particularly acute in low-income countries where road budgets are limited, and where inadequate road networks impose severe constraints on economic growth, agricultural productivity, and access to social services. The engineering deficiencies of unstabilized lateritic soils including high plasticity, low bearing capacity, susceptibility to moisture-induced strength loss, and volumetric instability result in premature pavement failures manifesting as rutting, cracking, potholes, and surface erosion. Akinbuluma et al. (2025) documented that pavement failures on roads constructed on African lateritic soils are frequently driven by high moisture sensitivity, poor compaction, and the absence of effective stabilization measures. These failures impose enormous economic costs through vehicle operating costs, road maintenance expenditure, and lost productivity. Despite growing research interest in soil stabilization, there remains insufficient site-specific empirical data on the optimal combination of cement and lime for the stabilization of lateritic soils to meet sub-base construction standards, particularly in contexts where soil composition, mineralogy, and climate vary significantly. This study addresses this gap by systematically evaluating the geotechnical improvement achievable through cement and lime stabilization of lateritic soil.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of cement and lime stabilization in improving the geotechnical and mechanical properties of lateritic soil for road sub-base construction.
The specific objectives are:
1. To determine the index properties of the natural lateritic soil, including Atterberg limits, particle size distribution, specific gravity, and compaction characteristics.
2. To evaluate the effect of varying proportions of Portland cement (2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10%) on the geotechnical properties and bearing capacity of the lateritic soil.
3. To assess the effect of varying proportions of hydrated lime (2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) on the index properties and strength characteristics of the lateritic soil.
4. To investigate the synergistic effects of combined cement-lime stabilization on CBR, UCS, and compaction properties of lateritic soil.
5. To identify the optimal cement and lime content(s) that satisfy the minimum engineering specifications for road sub-base materials.
6. To assess the economic and practical feasibility of using cement-lime stabilization as an alternative to conventional aggregates in road sub-base construction.
1.4 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the geotechnical characterization and chemical stabilization of lateritic soil samples collected from designated borrow pits within a selected tropical study area. The scope is limited to laboratory-based investigations, encompassing particle size analysis, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, modified Proctor compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests conducted on both natural and treated soil samples. The stabilizing agents evaluated are ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), applied individually and in selected combined proportions. The study does not extend to field trial sections or long-term field performance monitoring, nor does it cover other stabilization methods such as geosynthetic reinforcement, thermal stabilization, or biological treatment. The findings and recommendations are particularly applicable to road sub-base construction in tropical regions with similar lateritic soil profiles.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research makes several important contributions to the field of geotechnical and highway engineering. First, it generates site-specific empirical data on the geotechnical improvement achievable through cement and lime stabilization of locally available lateritic soils, providing a scientific basis for material selection in road sub-base design. Second, it contributes to the growing body of literature supporting the use of chemical stabilization as a cost-effective and environmentally responsible alternative to the extraction and transportation of conventional aggregates, which has significant implications for reducing project costs and carbon emissions in road construction (Foko Tamba et al., 2023). Third, the study addresses a gap in knowledge regarding the optimal combination of cement and lime for specific lateritic soil types, providing guidance for practitioners and engineers responsible for road construction in tropical environments. From a practical standpoint, the findings have direct relevance for road authorities, contractors, and policymakers seeking to expand and maintain road networks at lower cost and with improved durability. For developing countries where road budgets are chronically constrained, the adoption of soil stabilization technologies that harness locally available materials can translate into significant savings and enable the construction of more roads with the same financial resources. Furthermore, as global attention to sustainable development intensifies, research that demonstrates pathways to reduced carbon emissions and resource conservation in infrastructure construction aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) and Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) (Springer Nature, 2024).
1.6 Research Hypotheses
This study is guided by the following hypotheses:
1. H₁: The addition of Portland cement to lateritic soil at increasing dosage levels will produce statistically significant improvements in CBR and UCS values, and a reduction in plasticity index.
2. H₂: The addition of hydrated lime to lateritic soil will produce significant reductions in liquid limit, plasticity index, and swelling potential through ion exchange and pozzolanic reactions.
3. H₃: The combined application of cement and lime will yield superior engineering properties compared to either stabilizer applied independently, due to the complementary nature of their reaction mechanisms.
4. H₄: There exists an optimal cement-lime combination at which the stabilized lateritic soil meets or exceeds the minimum CBR requirement of 30% for road sub-base construction.
1.7 Definition of Key Terms
Lateritic Soil: A residual soil formed by intensive tropical weathering (laterization) of parent rock materials, characterized by high concentrations of iron and aluminum oxides, kaolinite clay minerals, and typically reddish coloration. Lateritic soils are commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions and vary widely in engineering properties depending on their mineralogy, degree of weathering, and geomorphological setting. Soil Stabilization: The process of improving the engineering properties of a soil such as its strength, stiffness, permeability, and durabilitythrough physical, chemical, or mechanical means, so as to make it suitable for its intended engineering application. In highway engineering, stabilization is used to upgrade substandard soils for use as sub-base, base, or subgrade materials. Portland Cement: A hydraulic binder produced by grinding Portland cement clinker with calcium sulfate (gypsum). When mixed with water, Portland cement undergoes hydration reactions producing cementitious compounds that bind soil particles together and increase the strength and stiffness of the soil-cement composite. Hydrated Lime: Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), produced by adding water to quicklime (CaO). When mixed with clay soils, hydrated lime reacts through immediate ion exchange and long-term pozzolanic reactions to reduce plasticity and increase strength. California Bearing Ratio (CBR): A standardized penetration test used to evaluate the bearing capacity and mechanical strength of sub-base, base, and subgrade materials. The CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the load required to produce a given penetration in the test material relative to the load required to produce the same penetration in a standard crushed stone material.Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS): The maximum compressive stress that an unconfined cylindrical soil specimen can sustain under axial loading without lateral support. UCS is widely used as an indicator of soil strength and stiffness, particularly for stabilized soils. Sub-Base: The structural layer of a road pavement positioned between the subgrade (natural ground) and the base course. The sub-base provides additional load-spreading capacity, drainage, and protection of the subgrade, and must meet minimum CBR and compaction requirements. Atterberg Limits: A set of boundary moisture contents that define the transitions between different states of consistency in fine-grained soils. The most commonly determined Atterberg limits are the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), from which the plasticity index (PI = LL – PL) is derived.
1.8 Organization of the Study
This research report is structured into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction to the study, encompassing the background, problem statement, objectives, scope, significance, research hypotheses, and definition of key terms. Chapter Two provides a comprehensive review of the literature on the properties of lateritic soils, mechanisms of cement and lime stabilization, and findings from recent empirical studies on stabilized lateritic soils for road construction. Chapter Three describes the research methodology, including sample collection, laboratory testing procedures, and data analysis methods. Chapter Four presents and discusses the laboratory test results for both natural and stabilized soil samples. Chapter Five concludes the study by summarizing findings, drawing conclusions, and making recommendations for practice and future research.
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