CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Climate change is one of the biggest threats to food production in Nigeria, particularly for smallholders who depend on rainfall. Erratic rainfall, prolonged dry spells, floods and rising temperatures reduce crop yields and raise the risk of farming. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that aims to raise productivity, build resilience to climate change and, where possible, reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Typical CSA practices for maize include improved and drought-tolerant varieties, early planting, mulching, organic manure, crop rotation and intercropping with legumes, agroforestry, and improved soil and water management.

Farmers can adopt these practices only if they understand them. Extension education, delivered through training, demonstrations, field days and advisory visits, is the main means of building that understanding. Studies in Nigeria have linked extension to CSA adoption. Oparaojiaku et al. (2025) found that extension contact had a significant positive influence on the extent of use of climate-smart agriculture among cassava farmers in Abia State. Oyetunde-Usman and Shee (2023) studied the adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties and interrelated climate-smart practices in Nigeria, and Mnukwa et al. (2025) reviewed the adoption and impact of CSA on smallholder maize farmers’ livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa. A review of climate-smart technologies in Nigeria by researchers at the University of Abuja also highlights the growing interest in these technologies in the country (Otitoju et al., 2023).

The effectiveness of extension education depends on the agents who deliver it. Ojo et al. (2024) surveyed 88 extension agents in North-Central Nigeria and found that the main constraints to disseminating CSA practices were an insufficient number of extension workers, lack of staff incentives and inadequate transportation. In a follow-up study, Ojo et al. (2025) reported that agents’ participation was particularly low for some CSA practices such as integrated pest management and water harvesting, and linked the low participation to inadequate training.

Gwagwalada Area Council in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) is a farming area where maize is widely grown, and the University of Abuja is located in the area. However, there is limited documented evidence on the effect of extension education on maize farmers’ adoption of CSA practices in Gwagwalada. This study was designed to provide such evidence.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Maize farmers in the FCT face climate-related risks such as irregular rainfall and dry spells, which affect their yields and incomes. CSA practices can help farmers cope, but adoption remains uneven. Extension education is expected to increase adoption, but extension agents in the region face constraints of insufficient personnel, transport and training in CSA (Ojo et al., 2024, 2025).

In Gwagwalada it is not known what extension education maize farmers receive on climate-smart practices, which CSA practices they have adopted, and whether extension education explains differences in adoption. This study therefore examines the effect of agricultural extension education on farmers’ adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among maize farmers in Gwagwalada Area Council, FCT.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to examine the effect of agricultural extension education on the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among maize farmers in Gwagwalada Area Council, FCT. The specific objectives are to:

(1) describe the socio-economic characteristics of maize farmers in the study area;

(2) determine farmers’ awareness of climate change and climate-smart agricultural practices;

(3) identify the extension education methods used to teach climate-smart practices;

(4) determine the extent of adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices;

(5) determine the effect of extension education on adoption of climate-smart practices; and

(6) identify the constraints to adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in the study area.

1.4 Research Questions

(1) What are the socio-economic characteristics of maize farmers in the study area?

(2) What is the level of farmers’ awareness of climate change and climate-smart practices?

(3) What extension education methods are used to teach climate-smart practices?

(4) What is the extent of adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices?

(5) What is the effect of extension education on adoption of climate-smart practices?

(6) What constraints hinder adoption of climate-smart practices?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses will be tested at the 5% level of significance:

H01: Agricultural extension education has no significant effect on the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among maize farmers in the study area.

H02: There is no significant relationship between farmers’ socio-economic characteristics and their adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings will help the FCT Agricultural Development Programme, the Gwagwalada Area Council agriculture department and other providers to improve extension education on climate-smart practices. Maize farmers will benefit from clearer recommendations on how to cope with climate risks. Policy makers can use the results in planning climate adaptation programmes for smallholders in the FCT. The study also adds to the literature on extension and climate-smart agriculture in North-Central Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study is limited to maize farmers in Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory. It focuses on agricultural extension education as the independent variable and adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices as the dependent variable. The practices considered include improved and drought-tolerant varieties, early planting, mulching, organic manure, crop rotation and intercropping, and soil and water conservation.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study covers one area council and its findings may not be generalised to all maize farmers in the FCT or Nigeria. Farmers may not be familiar with the term climate-smart agriculture even when they use some of the practices, so questions will be framed in local terms. Farmers may also find it hard to recall when they adopted a practice. These limitations will be handled through careful questionnaire design, use of trained enumerators and pre-testing.

1.9 Definition of Terms

(1) Extension education: The process of teaching farmers new knowledge and skills through training, demonstrations, field days and advisory visits.

(2) Climate-smart agriculture: An approach to farming that raises productivity, builds resilience to climate change and reduces emissions where possible.

(3) Adoption: The decision to accept a practice and continue to use it.

(4) Climate change: A long-term change in weather patterns, including temperature and rainfall, that affects agriculture.

References

Mnukwa, M. L., Mdoda, L., & Mudhara, M. (2025). Assessing the adoption and impact of climate-smart agricultural practices on smallholder maize farmers’ livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1543805

Ojo, I. E., Akangbe, J. A., Kolawole, E. A., Owolabi, A. O., Obaniyi, K. S., Ayeni, M. D., Adeniyi, V. A., & Awe, T. E. (2024). Constraints limiting the effectiveness of extension agents in disseminating climate-smart agricultural practices among rice farmers in north-Central Nigeria. Frontiers in Climate, 6, Article 1297225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2024.1297225

Ojo, I. E., Kolawole, A. E., Adeyonu, A. G., Owolabi, A. O., Akerele, D., Awe, T. E., Chike, I., Ogunsuyi, D. P., & Ogundele, A. A. (2025). Extension agents’ attitudes and participation in disseminating climate-smart agricultural practices in North-Central, Nigeria. Frontiers in Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1663720

Oparaojiaku, J., Izuogu, C., Njoku, L., Igwe, O., Nwabuisi, J., Ankrah, D., Ominikari, A., Umeh, N., Ismail, I., & Abdulmumini, L. (2025). Adoption of climate smart agricultural practices among cassava farmers in Abia State, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension. https://journal.aesonnigeria.org/index.php/jae/article/view/4847

Otitoju, M. A., Fidelis, E. S., Otene, E. O., & Anigoro, D. O. (2023). Review of climate smart agricultural technologies adoption and use in Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science. https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7860

Oyetunde-Usman, Z., & Shee, A. (2023). Adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties and interrelated climate smart agricultural practices in Nigeria. Agriculture & Food Security, 12, Article 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-023-00429-1