CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Smallholder farmers in northern Ghana depend on rain-fed agriculture and are therefore directly exposed to changes in rainfall and temperature. Issahaku and Abdulai (2020) point out that increased climate variability over the past four decades has made farming more uncertain and increased farmers' exposure to risk. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has been promoted as a response. Lipper et al. (2014) describe CSA as an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural systems to support food security under climate change, which emphasises flexible, context-specific solutions and stronger local institutions. In practice, CSA includes practices such as improved and drought-tolerant varieties, row planting, reduced tillage, mulching and residue retention, crop rotation and intercropping, and soil and water conservation.

Evidence from Ghana shows that CSA can pay off. Issahaku and Abdulai (2020) found that adopting crop choice and soil and water conservation practices increased crop revenues and reduced the riskiness of crop production, with the largest gains from adopting them jointly. Asante et al. (2024a) found that adopting three CSA technologies together (zero tillage, row planting and drought-resistant seed) had the largest effect on maize yields among farmers in three regions of Ghana. Yet adoption among smallholders remains limited. Atta-Aidoo and Antwi-Agyei (2025) note that the resource requirements of CSA practices in land, labour and finance continue to keep smallholder farmers in Ghana from adopting them at a high rate.

Extension is one of the institutional factors that influence whether farmers adopt. Atta-Aidoo and Antwi-Agyei (2025), using data from 350 smallholder farmers in seven communities of the North East and Upper East Regions, found that access to extension services, land tenure security, access to input markets and climatic shocks influenced the likelihood and extent of adoption of different groups of CSA practices. In the Upper West Region, Toboyee et al. (2026) surveyed 400 smallholder farmers and found that access to agricultural extension services and CSA training were significantly associated with adoption. Zakaria et al. (2020) found that access to extension services and membership of farmer-based organisations made farmers more likely to take part in climate change training, and that participation in training influenced the intensity of CSA adoption. Martey et al. (2021) found that a comprehensive training programme increased the adoption of climate-smart cowpea varieties, productivity and income in northern Ghana.

The way in which extension is delivered also matters. Azumah et al. (2018) studied 543 rice farmers in the Northern and Upper East Regions and found that farmer-to-farmer, demonstration field, household extension and radio methods were the main methods in use, and that demonstration, farmer-to-farmer and household extension methods were perceived as the most effective. They also found low patronage of ICT and other mass media methods. Damba et al. (2020) concluded that a well-designed combination of dissemination approaches would be the most effective in Northern Ghana, and Dzanku et al. (2021) reported from a randomised experiment in northern Ghana that video was effective in inducing technology uptake. Asante et al. (2024a) recommend that governments work with farmer-based groups and extension officers to improve farmers' awareness of the benefits of CSA.

Bongo and Talensi are districts in the Upper East Region. Earlier work in the Bongo District examined the types of CSA practices in two communities and the role of local institutions in facilitating their adoption (Alare, 2015). The studies reviewed above, however, cover wider samples, such as the North East and Upper East Regions together (Atta-Aidoo & Antwi-Agyei, 2025), or districts other than Bongo and Talensi (Azumah et al., 2018; Zakaria et al., 2020), and they do not describe how extension relates to CSA adoption in Bongo and Talensi specifically. District-level evidence is therefore needed.

1.2 Problem Statement

Farmers in the Upper East Region face climate risks that threaten yields and incomes, and CSA practices offer a way of reducing these risks. However, adoption remains constrained by the land, labour and financial requirements of the practices (Atta-Aidoo & Antwi-Agyei, 2025), and access to extension is limited: the agent-to-farmer ratio has improved but access is still low (Ninson & Ninson, 2026).

The literature suggests that extension and training increase CSA adoption (Toboyee et al., 2026; Zakaria et al., 2020), but most studies are regional or cover other parts of northern Ghana, and few examine which extension services reach farmers in particular Upper East districts. Little published evidence was found on the extension services available to smallholders in Bongo and Talensi, on the CSA practices they have adopted, or on whether the differences in adoption between farmers are explained by their access to extension. This study was designed to examine the effect of agricultural extension services on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Bongo and Talensi Districts.

1.3 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of agricultural extension services on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers in Bongo and Talensi Districts of the Upper East Region. The specific objectives are to:

(i) describe the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers in the two districts;

(ii) identify the extension services (sources, methods, content and frequency) that the farmers receive on climate-smart farming;

(iii) determine the level of adoption of climate-smart farming practices among the farmers;

(iv) determine the effect of extension services on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices; and

(v) identify the constraints to accessing extension services and to adopting climate-smart farming practices.

1.4 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of smallholder farmers in Bongo and Talensi Districts?

2. What extension services on climate-smart farming do the farmers receive, from which sources and through which methods?

3. What is the level of adoption of climate-smart farming practices among the farmers?

4. What is the effect of extension services on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices?

5. What constraints limit access to extension services and the adoption of climate-smart farming practices?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested at the 5% level of significance:

H0₁: Access to extension services has no significant effect on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers.

H1₁: Access to extension services has a significant effect on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices among smallholder farmers.

H0₂: The socio-economic characteristics of farmers (age, sex, education, farm size, land tenure, farming experience and membership of an FBO) have no significant influence on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices.

H1₂: The socio-economic characteristics of farmers (age, sex, education, farm size, land tenure, farming experience and membership of an FBO) have a significant influence on the adoption of climate-smart farming practices.

H0₃: There is no significant difference in the level of adoption of climate-smart farming practices between farmers in Bongo District and farmers in Talensi District.

H1₃: There is a significant difference in the level of adoption of climate-smart farming practices between farmers in Bongo District and farmers in Talensi District.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will help smallholder farmers in Bongo and Talensi by showing which extension services help them to adopt practices that protect their crops from climate risks. It will help the District Departments of Agriculture, MoFA, non-governmental organisations and other extension providers in the Upper East Region to decide which methods and messages to emphasise, and whether to give more attention to groups that are less well served.

Policy makers will find evidence for aligning extension with Ghana's climate-smart agriculture programmes at district level. The study will also add to the growing literature on CSA and extension in northern Ghana and will serve as a reference for students and researchers in agricultural extension and climate change adaptation.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is limited to smallholder crop farmers in Bongo and Talensi Districts in the Upper East Region. It focuses on extension services on climate-smart farming (sources, methods, content and frequency of contact) and on the adoption of CSA practices such as improved and drought-tolerant varieties, row planting, reduced tillage, residue retention and mulching, crop rotation and intercropping, and soil and water conservation. It does not cover livestock-related CSA practices, other districts or large-scale commercial farms. The data relate to the most recent cropping season.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study was limited by time and finance, which restricted the sample size and the number of communities visited. Farmers' accounts of the extension they received and the practices they use depend on recall. Farmers who seek out extension may differ from those who do not, for example in motivation or resources, so the analysis can show association but cannot fully prove that extension causes adoption unless these differences are controlled for. The findings from two districts should be generalised with care. The researcher tried to reduce these limitations by using a structured questionnaire, by including control variables in the analysis, and by interviewing farmers in the local language with the help of trained enumerators.

1.9 Definition of Terms

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA): An approach to farming that aims to raise productivity and incomes sustainably, to help farmers adapt to climate change, and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions where possible (Lipper et al., 2014).

Climate-smart farming practices: Farm-level practices that support CSA, such as drought-tolerant varieties, row planting, reduced tillage, residue retention, crop rotation, intercropping, and soil and water conservation.

Agricultural extension services: Activities through which extension agents and other sources give farmers information, advice and training, such as farm visits, demonstrations, group meetings and media programmes.

Adoption: The regular use of a recommended practice by a farmer after learning about it and trying it.

Smallholder farmer: A farmer who cultivates a small area of land, mainly with family labour and limited capital.

Farmer-based organisation (FBO): A group of farmers formed to work together on production, marketing or access to services.

1.10 Organisation of the Study

The thesis has five chapters. Chapter One introduces the study. Chapter Two reviews the relevant theoretical and empirical literature and presents the conceptual framework. Chapter Three describes the study area and the research methodology. Chapter Four presents and discusses the results. Chapter Five summarises the findings, draws conclusions and makes recommendations.

REFERENCES

Alare, R. S. (2015). Climate smart agriculture adoption by smallholder farmers: A case study of Anafobiisi and Gowrie-Kunkua communities in the Bongo District of Ghana [Master's thesis, University of Ghana]. UGSpace. https://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/items/248bdd45-db1e-416c-b66d-48361176e73b

Asante, B. O., Ma, W., Prah, S., & Temoso, O. (2024a). Farmers' adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural technologies in Ghana: Determinants and impacts on maize yields and net farm income. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 29(2), Article 16.

Atta-Aidoo, J., & Antwi-Agyei, P. (2025). Climate-smart agriculture adoption in rural Ghana: Do resource requirements matter? BMC Environmental Science, 2(1), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44329-025-00018-6

Azumah, S. B., Donkoh, S. A., & Awuni, J. A. (2018). The perceived effectiveness of agricultural technology transfer methods: Evidence from rice farmers in Northern Ghana. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1), Article 1503798. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1503798

Damba, O. T., Ansah, I. G. K., Donkoh, S. A., Alhassan, A., Mullins, G. R., Yussif, K., Taylor, M. S., Tetteh, B. K. D., & Appiah-Twumasi, M. (2020). Effects of technology dissemination approaches on agricultural technology uptake and utilization in Northern Ghana. Technology in Society, 62, Article 101294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101294

Dzanku, F. M., Osei, R. D., Nkegbe, P. K., & Osei-Akoto, I. (2021). Information delivery channels and agricultural technology uptake: Experimental evidence from Ghana. European Review of Agricultural Economics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbaa032

Issahaku, G., & Abdulai, A. (2020). Adoption of climate-smart practices and its impact on farm performance and risk exposure among smallholder farmers in Ghana. Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 64(2), 396–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8489.12357

Lipper, L., Thornton, P., Campbell, B. M., Baedeker, T., Braimoh, A., Bwalya, M., Caron, P., Cattaneo, A., Garrity, D., Henry, K., Hottle, R., Jackson, L., Jarvis, A., Kossam, F., Mann, W., McCarthy, N., Meybeck, A., Neufeldt, H., Remington, T., Sen, P. T., Sessa, R., Shula, R., Tibu, A., & Torquebiau, E. F. (2014). Climate-smart agriculture for food security. Nature Climate Change, 4(12), 1068–1072. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2437

Martey, E., Etwire, P. M., & Mockshell, J. (2021). Climate-smart cowpea adoption and welfare effects of comprehensive agricultural training programs. Technology in Society, 64, Article 101468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101468

Ninson, J., & Ninson, D. (2026). Are agricultural extension services accessible to Ghanaian farmers? Probabilities and expectations from corner solution responses. Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.19041/APSTRACT/2026/1/10

Toboyee, J., Molle, M. N., Peprah, K., Aabeyir, R., Saaka, S. A., & Luginaah, I. (2026). Challenges to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in semi-arid Ghana. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355679

Zakaria, A., Azumah, S. B., Appiah-Twumasi, M., & Dagunga, G. (2020). Adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among farm households in Ghana: The role of farmer participation in training programmes. Technology in Society, 63, Article 101338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101338