CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Literacy is widely regarded as the foundation on which personal development, economic participation and civic engagement are built. The Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education describes adult learning and education as a vital tool for empowering adults to participate in social, economic and political life (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning [UIL], 2022). For millions of adults who missed or abandoned formal schooling, adult literacy programmes are the only realistic route to acquiring the ability to read, write and use numbers in daily life. The Marrakech Framework for Action, adopted at the Seventh International Conference on Adult Education, reaffirmed the obligation of states to strengthen adult learning and education as part of the lifelong learning agenda and the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (UNESCO, 2022).

In Nigeria, the size of the literacy challenge remains considerable. World Bank estimates based on UNESCO data put the adult literacy rate (population aged 15 and above) at about 70.4 per cent in 2024 (World Bank, 2025), although estimates vary between sources and national data are dated. The Executive Secretary of the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC) has acknowledged that the Commission’s most recent national literacy data were collected in 2010, and that a fresh data-collection exercise has begun (“Federal Government directs NMEC,” 2026). The National Bureau of Statistics reported in 2022 that nearly 80 million Nigerians, about 31 per cent of the population, were non-literate, a figure the Federal Government cited when launching its Accelerated Basic Education programme (allAfrica, 2025). Whichever estimate is preferred, a very large number of Nigerian adults still cannot read and write with understanding.

The response to this problem has been institutional. NMEC, working with State Agencies for Adult and Non-Formal Education, faith-based organisations, non-governmental organisations and development partners, oversees basic literacy, post-literacy and continuing education centres across the country. These centres typically enrol learners who are farmers, traders, artisans, homemakers and out-of-school youths, and they combine instruction in reading, writing and numeracy with livelihood and life skills. The rationale is that literacy should be functional, that is, it should help learners handle real tasks such as reading labels and instructions, writing letters, keeping simple accounts and completing forms.

Whether such programmes actually achieve their central aim, which is to improve learners’ reading and writing skills, is an empirical question, and the international evidence is mixed. Kolawole and Pusoetsile (2022) compared 30 participants in a government-funded adult basic education programme in rural Botswana with 30 non-participants and found no significant difference in literacy attainment between the groups. They attributed this to weak programme effectiveness and implementation challenges. Nkansah (2022), studying two rural communities in Ghana, concluded that adult literacy classes do not automatically produce community development unless they are linked to community-based, people-led development. In South Africa, Akintolu et al. (2022) found that learner-related, facilitator-related and government-related factors inhibited the progress of adult community learning centres in KwaZulu-Natal, even where centre managers tried to involve stakeholders. Studies of this kind show that the existence of a programme is not proof of its effectiveness, and that the quality of delivery matters as much as the number of centres.

Cross River State offers an appropriate setting for examining this question. The Calabar Education Zone, which covers the southern part of the State, includes urban and peri-urban communities such as Calabar Municipality and Calabar South as well as riverine and forest-fringe communities where access to schooling has historically been limited. Adult literacy centres operate in these communities under the supervision of the State Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education and its partners. Yet there is little systematic evidence on how far learners who attend these centres actually gain in reading and writing competence. This study was designed to supply that evidence.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Considerable public and donor resources have been committed to adult literacy programmes in Nigeria, and centres have been established in many communities in Cross River State. Enrolment figures and graduation lists are often used as indicators of success. However, enrolment and attendance do not necessarily translate into the ability to read a simple text, write a short message or complete a basic form. National literacy data are outdated (“Federal Government directs NMEC,” 2026), and centre-level assessments of learners’ reading and writing progress are rarely carried out or published.

Available studies elsewhere suggest that programme participation can fail to yield measurable literacy gains where implementation is weak (Kolawole & Pusoetsile, 2022) and that centres are constrained by learner, facilitator and government-related factors (Akintolu et al., 2022). Similar concerns are frequently raised in Nigeria, including irregular attendance, inadequate teaching and learning materials, poorly motivated facilitators, unsuitable venues and limited supervision. It is not known to what extent such problems affect centres in the Calabar Education Zone, nor whether learners in these centres are acquiring the reading and writing skills the programmes promise.

Without such evidence, policymakers, programme managers and development partners cannot judge whether current investments are working or how they should be improved. The problem this study addresses is therefore the lack of empirical evidence on the effectiveness of adult literacy programmes in improving the reading and writing skills of adult learners in Calabar Education Zone, Cross River State.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to determine the effectiveness of adult literacy programmes in improving reading and writing skills among adult learners in adult literacy centres in Calabar Education Zone, Cross River State. The specific objectives are to:

1. assess the level of reading skills acquired by adult learners in the adult literacy centres;

2. assess the level of writing skills acquired by adult learners in the adult literacy centres;

3. determine the extent to which learners’ length of stay in the programme is related to their reading and writing skills;

4. examine the adequacy of facilitators, instructional materials and learning facilities in the centres; and

5. identify the challenges that limit the effectiveness of the programmes and suggest ways of addressing them.

1.4 Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions:

1. To what extent have adult literacy programmes improved the reading skills of adult learners in Calabar Education Zone?

2. To what extent have adult literacy programmes improved the writing skills of adult learners in Calabar Education Zone?

3. What is the relationship between the length of participation in the programme and learners’ reading and writing skills?

4. How adequate are facilitators, instructional materials and learning facilities in the adult literacy centres?

5. What challenges hinder the effectiveness of adult literacy programmes in the centres?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀₁: Adult literacy programmes have no significant effect on the reading skills of adult learners in Calabar Education Zone.

H₀₂: Adult literacy programmes have no significant effect on the writing skills of adult learners in Calabar Education Zone.

H₀₃: There is no significant relationship between length of participation and the reading and writing skills of adult learners.

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in the reading and writing skills of male and female adult learners.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to be useful in several ways.

Adult learners. The study will help learners by drawing attention to the conditions under which they learn best, and by encouraging programme providers to focus on skills that matter in learners’ daily lives.

Facilitators and centre managers. Facilitators and managers will obtain evidence on which parts of instruction are working and which are not, and can use this to adjust teaching methods, attendance monitoring and assessment practices.

The State Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education and NMEC. The findings will provide evidence for planning, supervision and budgeting, and can contribute to the local data that NMEC has said it needs for reliable planning (“Federal Government directs NMEC,” 2026).

Non-governmental organisations and development partners. Organisations that fund or run literacy activities will have a basis for judging the return on their investment and for designing better-targeted interventions.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Geographically, the study is limited to adult literacy centres in the Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, which comprises the Local Government Areas of the Southern Senatorial District. In terms of content, it focuses on two literacy skills, reading and writing, and on the programme factors (facilitators, materials, facilities and attendance) that are likely to influence them. Numeracy, vocational outcomes and other benefits of literacy are outside its scope. The respondents are adult learners aged 18 years and above enrolled in basic and post-literacy classes, together with facilitators and centre supervisors.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study is a case study of one education zone, so its findings may not be generalisable to other parts of Nigeria. Second, some learners have limited ability to read the research instruments, so items will be read aloud and explained where necessary, which may introduce some interviewer influence. Third, irregular attendance may affect the number of learners available for assessment on the days of data collection. Fourth, the researcher relies on records kept by the centres, whose completeness may vary. These limitations were minimised through pre-testing of instruments, repeat visits to centres and the use of more than one source of data.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Adult literacy programme: an organised non-formal education programme that teaches adults aged 18 years and above to read, write and use basic numeracy. In this study it refers to programmes run in centres supervised by the Cross River State Agency for Adult and Non-Formal Education and its partners.

Effectiveness: the extent to which a programme achieves its stated aim of improving learners’ reading and writing skills, measured by learners’ scores on a reading and writing assessment and by their own and facilitators’ reports.

Reading skills: the ability to recognise letters and words, read simple sentences and passages aloud, and understand what has been read.

Writing skills: the ability to form letters and words correctly, spell common words, and write simple sentences, short messages and personal details.

Adult learner: a person aged 18 years or above who is enrolled in an adult literacy class.

Adult literacy centre: a designated venue, such as a classroom or community hall, where adult literacy classes are held on a regular basis.

Calabar Education Zone: the administrative education zone in southern Cross River State that forms the study area.

References

Akintolu, M., Uleanya, C., & Letseka, M. (2022). Examining key challenges in the programmes of adult community learning centres in KwaZulu-Natal. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211070307

allAfrica. (2025, August 1). Nigeria: Basic education – Govt targets 80 million non-literate youths and adults. https://allafrica.com/stories/202508010056.html

Federal Government directs NMEC to enhance literacy data collection for adults and youths. (2026). Nigeria News Digest. https://www.nigerianewsdigest.com/federal-government-directs-nmec-to-enhance-literacy-data-collection-for-adults-and-youths/

Kolawole, O. D., & Pusoetsile, T. (2022). What difference does literacy make among adult learners? Impact of adult basic education programme in a rural community in Botswana. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 28(1), 227–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211007495

Nkansah, T. (2022). The role of adult literacy in community development in Ghana: Perceptions and experiences of two rural communities. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/25166026221110728

UNESCO. (2022). Marrakech Framework for Action: Harnessing the transformational power of adult learning and education (Seventh International Conference on Adult Education). UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2022). 5th global report on adult learning and education: Citizenship education – Empowering adults for change. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.

World Bank. (2025). Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Nigeria [Data set]. World Development Indicators. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SEADTLITRZSNGA