CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Women’s empowerment is the process by which women gain the knowledge, confidence, resources and authority to make and act on decisions that affect their own lives and their communities. It is usually understood to have economic, social, psychological and political dimensions. Education is widely regarded as its most important starting point. Awopetu (2025) concludes that economic empowerment through education is a major key to women’s liberation and argues that cultural values and practices that hold back women’s education must change. Obiagu (2023), using Nigerian data, treats women’s education and economic empowerment as key measures for promoting gender equality and reducing women’s exposure to domestic gender-based violence, drawing on feminist and empowerment theories that link education and independence to greater freedom.

Adult education offers a second chance to women who missed or left formal schooling because of poverty, early marriage, family duties or cultural expectations. Its programmes include basic literacy, post-literacy, continuing education, vocational and skills training, health and civic education. Ali (2024) presents adult education as an alternative route to accelerated socio-economic development in Nigeria, while the Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education stresses its role in enabling adults to take part in social, economic and civic life (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning [UIL], 2022). The Marrakech Framework for Action commits UNESCO member states to widening access to adult learning, especially for disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2022). Belete et al. (2022) report that community-based centres in Africa mainly offer literacy, vocational and income-generation programmes and that reported outcomes include economic empowerment, participation in community development and awareness of health and hygiene.

Recent African evidence confirms that adult education can strengthen women’s agency, while also showing where it falls short. A study of rural women in southern Ethiopia found that adult education significantly enhances women’s economic agency by equipping them with literacy, entrepreneurial and financial-management skills, and that statistically significant relationships exist between participation and empowerment outcomes; it also identified barriers and recommended culturally responsive curricula, expanded rural education infrastructure and vocational integration (Barasa et al., 2026).

Empowerment also has an entrepreneurial dimension. Ukwueze (2022), in a study of women and entrepreneurship in Nigeria published in the Journal of International Women’s Studies, examines the role of social inclusion in female-owned businesses and the economic and non-economic factors that inhibit them, underlining that empowerment is shaped by social as well as economic conditions.

At the same time, the evidence does not support the assumption that adult education automatically empowers. Kolawole and Pusoetsile (2022) found no significant difference in literacy attainment between participants and non-participants in an adult basic education programme in Botswana and linked this to implementation weaknesses. Nkansah (2022) found in two rural Ghanaian communities that adult literacy did not necessarily lead to community development. Akintolu et al. (2022) showed that learner, facilitator and government factors can inhibit adult learning centres. These findings imply that the influence of adult education on women’s empowerment depends on the quality, relevance and support of programmes, and must be examined in specific local settings.

Ovia North-East Local Government Area (LGA), whose headquarters is at Okada, is a largely rural and semi-urban area of Edo State, close to Benin City, in which many women engage in farming, agro-processing, petty trading and artisanal work. Adult education programmes for women there are provided by the State’s adult and non-formal education agency, faith-based organisations and community groups, and typically combine literacy with skills training and awareness sessions on health, savings and civic rights. There is little empirical evidence on how far these programmes have empowered the women who attend them. This study examines that influence.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Women’s adult education programmes are established on the expectation that they will build women’s confidence, skills, income and voice. In Ovia North-East LGA, several such programmes operate, yet women in the area continue to face barriers to schooling, income, credit and participation in decisions at household and community level. It is not clear whether the programmes are making a real difference to the women who join them.

Evidence from elsewhere shows mixed results. Some studies link women’s education with better economic and social outcomes (Awopetu, 2025; Barasa et al., 2026; Obiagu, 2023), while others show that adult literacy or basic education does not automatically yield the expected benefits (Kolawole & Pusoetsile, 2022; Nkansah, 2022). Programme problems such as inadequate funding, insufficient materials, weak facilitation and lack of follow-up may reduce impact (Akintolu et al., 2022). Cultural attitudes and household constraints may also limit what women can do with the skills they acquire (Ukwueze, 2022).

Without local evidence, programme managers, the Edo State adult education authorities and development partners cannot tell which components of the programmes empower women, which do not, and which women benefit most. The problem this study addresses is therefore the lack of empirical evidence on the influence of women’s adult education programmes on women’s empowerment in Ovia North-East LGA, Edo State.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to determine the influence of women’s adult education programmes on women’s empowerment in Ovia North-East LGA, Edo State. The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the influence of the programmes on women’s economic empowerment

2. assess their influence on women’s social empowerment

3. determine their influence on women’s psychological empowerment

4. find out their influence on women’s participation in household and community decision-making; and

5. identify the challenges that limit the programmes’ contribution to women’s empowerment.

1.4 Research Questions

1. What is the influence of the programmes on women’s economic empowerment?

2. How have the programmes influenced women’s social empowerment?

3. What is the influence of the programmes on women’s self-confidence and self-esteem?

4. How have the programmes influenced women’s participation in household and community decision-making?

5. What challenges limit the programmes’ contribution to women’s empowerment?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance:

H₀₁: Women’s adult education programmes have no significant influence on the economic empowerment of women in Ovia North-East LGA.

H₀₂: The programmes have no significant influence on women’s social empowerment.

H₀₃: The programmes have no significant influence on women’s psychological empowerment.

H₀₄: The programmes have no significant influence on women’s participation in household and community decision-making.

H₀₅: There is no significant difference in the empowerment of women who completed the programmes and those who dropped out or did not participate.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Women participants. The study will show women which programme components deliver the most benefit and will help them make informed choices.

Programme managers and facilitators. They will obtain evidence for revising curricula and adding components that strengthen empowerment, such as business management, savings groups and health education.

Edo State agency for adult and non-formal education and local government. The findings can guide policy, funding and supervision of women’s programmes.

Non-governmental and faith-based organisations. They will be able to assess their impact and improve programme design.

Families and communities. More empowered women improve household welfare and community participation.

1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study is restricted to women’s adult education programmes in Ovia North-East LGA, Edo State. It covers women aged 18 years and above who are currently enrolled in, or have completed, these programmes within the last three years, together with facilitators and programme coordinators. Empowerment is examined in four dimensions: economic, social, psychological, and decision-making participation. The study does not evaluate the technical quality of individual skills courses.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study is a case study of one LGA and cannot be generalised to all of Edo State or Nigeria. Empowerment is a multi-dimensional concept that is hard to measure, and the study relies largely on women’s self-reports, which may be affected by social desirability. Because women’s circumstances are shaped by many factors outside the programmes, the study can report association and perceived influence better than strict causation. Some respondents may have limited literacy, so items will be read to them and explained in the local language. These limitations were reduced through instrument pre-testing, confidentiality assurances and the use of female research assistants.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

Adult education programme: organised learning for adults outside the formal school system, including literacy, continuing education and skills training.

Women’s empowerment: the process through which women gain skills, confidence, resources and decision-making power, measured here by economic, social, psychological and decision-making indicators.

Economic empowerment: women’s ability to earn, save and control income and to operate income-generating activities.

Social empowerment: women’s literacy, health awareness, freedom of movement and participation in community groups and associations.

Psychological empowerment: women’s self-confidence, self-esteem and belief in their ability to act.

Decision-making participation: women’s involvement in decisions on household finances, family welfare and community affairs.

Ovia North-East LGA: the Local Government Area in Edo State that forms the study area.

References

Akintolu, M., Uleanya, C., & Letseka, M. (2022). Examining key challenges in the programmes of adult community learning centres in KwaZulu-Natal. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211070307

Ali, M. A. (2024). Adult education as an alternative option for accelerated socio-economic development of Nigeria. Journal of Continuing and Development Education, 4(1), 183–197. https://journalcde.com/index.php/jcde/article/view/123

Awopetu, A. (2025). Educational and economic empowerment of women for sustainable development in Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(3), 5287–5293.

Barasa, A. H., Mekuria, Y. S., Golga, D. N., et al. (2026). Adult education skills acquisition and the economic empowerment of rural women in Southern Ethiopia. Discover Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-026-01948-2

Belete, S., Duke, C., Hinzen, H., et al. (2022). Community learning centres (CLCs) for adult learning and education (ALE): Development in and by communities. International Review of Education, 68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-022-09954-w

Kolawole, O. D., & Pusoetsile, T. (2022). What difference does literacy make among adult learners? Impact of adult basic education programme in a rural community in Botswana. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 28(1), 227–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714211007495

Nkansah, T. (2022). The role of adult literacy in community development in Ghana: Perceptions and experiences of two rural communities. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/25166026221110728

Obiagu, A. N. (2023). Do women’s education and economic empowerment reduce gender-based violence in Nigeria? Journal of International Women’s Studies, 25(4), Article 12.

Ukwueze, E. R. (2022). Women and entrepreneurship in Nigeria: What role does social inclusion play? Journal of International Women’s Studies, 23(5), Article 4.

UNESCO. (2022). Marrakech Framework for Action: Harnessing the transformational power of adult learning and education (Seventh International Conference on Adult Education). UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. (2022). 5th global report on adult learning and education: Citizenship education – Empowering adults for change. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.