ABSTRACT

This study investigates the menace of vote buying within Nigeria’s electoral system, examining its issues, effects, causes, and possible solutions, with particular reference to the 2018 Ekiti State gubernatorial election. Vote buying during elections in Nigeria is not a recent development. However, the phenomenon has attracted considerable attention because of its potential to produce serious consequences for the political system and democratic processes of emerging democracies such as Nigeria. Vote buying has become an increasingly prominent component of electoral contests in Nigeria and has developed to a level where some political candidates now regard the purchase of votes as an essential part of their electoral strategy. This is based on the perception that candidates’ manifestoes and personal integrity alone may not be sufficient to secure electoral victory.

Consequently, this research seeks to identify the manifestations of vote buying, examine its effects, determine the factors that encourage it, and propose possible measures for reducing the practice in future elections in Ekiti State. The study employs a quantitative research approach, complemented by qualitative methods of data collection, while clientelism serves as the theoretical framework. The findings revealed that vote buying had a significant influence on the outcome of the 2018 Ekiti State gubernatorial election. The study also identified poverty, inadequate voter education, and ineffective implementation of sanctions as major factors encouraging the practice of vote buying. Based on these findings, recommendations are proposed to help control and reduce vote buying in future Nigerian elections. The study concludes that unless the underlying factors that encourage vote buying in Nigeria are adequately addressed, the practice will continue to persist and flourish.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In recent times, vote buying has become a major phenomenon within the Nigerian political system. The aspiration to establish and sustain a functional democratic system has increasingly been overshadowed by the growing practice of vote buying. This development is gradually weakening democratic institutions within the country. The extent to which votes are exchanged for monetary and material benefits has led to the description of Nigerian electoral politics as a form of “cash-and-carry democracy.” If this situation is not urgently addressed, it may pose serious threats to the future development and sustainability of Nigeria’s political system.

This research examines the influence of vote buying on democratic elections in Nigeria, with particular emphasis on the 2018 governorship election in Ekiti State. The Nigerian democratic system can be associated with the American model of democracy, which maintains that ultimate and supreme political authority rests with the people (Noah, 2006). The democratic model adopted by Nigeria is largely founded on the principle that the wishes of the majority should prevail while the views and interests of the minority should also be recognized. For democracy to function effectively as a political system, its fundamental characteristics must be observed. These include regular and periodic elections, protection of fundamental human rights, and the existence of a multiparty system that provides citizens with a range of candidates from which to make a choice, among others (Noah, 2004).

Periodic elections, as an essential feature of democracy, can be regarded as an indispensable component of democratic transitions and a major characteristic of representative democracy (Inokoba and Kumokor, 2011). This is because elections provide an opportunity for citizens to express their political preferences and are generally recognized as occasions involving high levels of political participation. In contemporary societies, elections are considered the most acceptable means through which citizens select their leaders in an organized, peaceful, and orderly manner (Momoh, 2005).

Elections can be viewed from two perspectives. On one hand, they provide citizens with an opportunity to express their preferences among candidates, manifestoes, policies, ideas, and programmes presented by individuals seeking political office. On the other hand, elections serve as a mechanism for removing unpopular or ineffective leaders and compelling elected officials to respond to the needs and concerns of the people (David, Manu, and Musa, 2014). This is possible because the electorate possesses the power to either renew or terminate the tenure of elected public officials. These important functions of elections are facilitated by the electoral process, which establishes the procedures and mechanisms through which individuals are selected for political offices (Nnamani, 2014).

The electoral process may be described as the totality of activities and operations associated with conducting elections, ranging from voter education to the dissolution of the National Assembly (Elekwa, 2008). It also encompasses pre-election and post-election responsibilities, including the rules and guidelines established by electoral authorities to ensure that elections are properly conducted and that citizens can select representatives who will protect and promote their interests. Without these activities and procedures, the electoral process would be incomplete and the legitimacy of an election could be questioned.

Activities associated with the electoral process include the registration of political parties, registration and review of voters’ records, scheduling of electoral campaigns, resolution of electoral disputes, and the swearing-in of elected representatives, among others (Nnamani, 2014). Campaigning is one of the major activities within the electoral process. During campaigns, candidates compete to gain the confidence and support of voters with the objective of becoming the preferred choice of the electorate.

In a democratic setting, electoral campaigns are expected to involve peaceful and constructive interaction between candidates and voters. Candidates engage in various forms of persuasion as they seek to obtain maximum support from the electorate by presenting reasons why they deserve the votes of citizens. At the same time, voters assess and evaluate the arguments presented by candidates, including the policies that may emerge from such arguments, and choose the candidate whose policy positions most closely correspond with their beliefs, expectations, and preferences (Bratton, 2008).

Consequently, any activity that undermines or violates the established electoral process may be regarded as electoral fraud or malpractice and constitutes an obstacle to the conduct of free and fair elections. A government that emerges from a seriously compromised electoral process may therefore have its democratic legitimacy questioned. In Nigeria, elections are frequently perceived as winner-takes-all contests, creating an intense political environment in which candidates may adopt extreme measures to secure electoral victory. Given the high stakes associated with political office, some politicians may resort to both legitimate and illegitimate strategies to obtain votes (Fafchamps and Vicente, 2013).

This explains why numerous Nigerian elections have been characterized by various forms of electoral malpractice, including electoral manipulation, electoral violence, and vote buying (Adamu et al., 2016).

Vote buying can be defined as the direct exchange of material benefits or other forms of inducement by political elites in return for electoral support (Carreras and Irepoglu, 2013). It may also involve the purchase of voting preferences or the provision of payments to voters with the intention of influencing them to vote for a particular candidate (Nichter, 2014). In emerging democracies such as Nigeria, electoral outcomes influenced by vote buying are gradually becoming an accepted feature of political competition, particularly following the transition from military rule to civilian democratic governance (Ovwasa, 2013).

This situation is partly associated with the desire of civilian administrations to project an image of free and fair elections, universal adult suffrage, and adherence to established electoral procedures. Nigerian politicians may exploit these aspirations by manipulating electoral rules through campaigns and the provision of material inducements to voters in an attempt to secure widespread electoral support (Bratton, 2008).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Elections provide an important avenue through which the views and preferences of citizens can be expressed. This practice has existed from ancient times, including the Greek city-states, where a “show of hands” was used to demonstrate support for a particular decision. In contemporary democratic systems, elections have become a fundamental pillar of democracy and an important mechanism for legitimizing governmental authority and decisions (David, Manu and Musa, 2014).

Therefore, anything that obstructs the electoral process limits the ability of citizens to freely express their political choices and consequently undermines one of the essential foundations of democracy (Adamu, Ocheni and Ibrahim, 2016). Nigeria, often regarded as the giant of Africa, attracts significant international attention regarding its democratic development and electoral processes, particularly as an indication of the possibility of achieving free and fair elections within the region. Despite this attention, the country continues to experience the problem of vote buying during elections (Baidoo, Dankwa and Eshun, 2018).

The reported presence of vote buying during Nigerian elections, particularly the 2018 gubernatorial elections in Ekiti and Osun States, as highlighted by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), has generated important questions concerning the credibility of such elections and the quality of Nigeria’s democratic process (Akinkuotu, 2018).

Several critical questions therefore arise. How free and fair can an election be when some candidates have already purchased the votes of members of the electorate before voting takes place? How can the principle of political equality be maintained when vote buying provides wealthy candidates with greater advantages over less wealthy candidates? How accountable can elected leaders be to voters when vote buying effectively creates the perception that politicians have already paid for the votes they receive? (Neeman and Orosel, 2008; Jensen and Justesen, 2014; Adamu et al., 2016).

The continued existence of vote buying in Nigeria’s electoral system, together with these concerns, creates significant anxiety regarding the credibility of the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State and the future of elections in Nigeria. This research therefore seeks to establish the extent to which vote buying occurred during the 2018 Ekiti State gubernatorial election, examine the validity of the concerns associated with vote buying in the state, and determine the implications of the practice for future elections and democratic development in Nigeria, with particular emphasis on Ekiti State.

1.3 Objectives of the Research

In line with the identified problem and the research questions, the general objective of this research is to investigate the menace of vote buying in Nigeria’s electoral system, with emphasis on its issues, effects, causes, and possible solutions.

Specifically, the objectives are to:

1. Examine the manifestations of vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

2. Determine the impact of vote buying on the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

3. Ascertain the factors that encouraged vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

4. Identify measures through which vote buying can be minimized in future elections in Ekiti State.

1.4 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What were the manifestations of vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State?

2. What was the impact of vote buying on the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State?

3. What factors encouraged vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State?

4. What measures can be adopted to minimize vote buying in future elections in Ekiti State?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study:

H₀1: There were no manifestations of vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

H₀2: Vote buying had no significant impact on the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

H₀3: There were no significant factors encouraging vote buying during the 2018 gubernatorial election in Ekiti State.

H₀4: Vote buying cannot be minimized in future elections in Ekiti State.

1.6 Significance of the Research

The significance of this research can be considered from three major perspectives: theoretical, governmental, and statistical.

From a theoretical perspective, the study of vote buying and democratic elections, using Ekiti State as a case study, contributes to the expansion of existing literature on the challenges associated with vote buying within Nigeria’s electoral system, including its issues, effects, causes, and possible solutions. Existing literature indicates that only a limited number of studies have examined this subject in Nigeria. Examples include Bratton (2008), who investigated vote buying and violence during Nigerian election campaigns, and Ovwasa (2012), who examined money politics and vote buying in Nigeria as a major obstacle to good governance.

From a governmental perspective, the study is important because contemporary methods of electoral manipulation adopted by some political candidates create serious obstacles to democratic elections and Nigeria’s developing democracy. Examining the nature, extent, and effectiveness of irregular campaign practices such as vote buying is therefore important for improving the credibility of future elections.

The research also provides insight into the individuals and groups who may become victims of vote buying in Nigeria, using Ekiti State as the case study. It further considers possible voter responses to irregular campaign practices such as vote buying. Bratton (2008) explains that individual voter responses to irregular campaign strategies such as vote buying may be classified into three possible courses of action: refusal, defection, or compliance.

These three possible responses are important in understanding the outcome of elections, particularly the election examined in Ekiti State. The findings of this research may therefore provide useful information on how government and relevant electoral stakeholders can address the problem of vote buying in future elections.

From a statistical perspective, the study employs the T-test, which provides an additional analytical approach to the existing body of research conducted in Nigeria and other countries. While previous studies have examined relationships between electoral turnout and candidate popularity as possible outcomes of vote buying, the application of the T-test in this study helps to demonstrate the extent to which the menace of vote buying has penetrated the democratic electoral process in Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Research

The study focuses on the assessment of the menace of vote buying in Nigeria, particularly its issues, effects, causes, and possible solutions. The research specifically covers five Local Government Areas in Ekiti State and examines events leading up to the 2018 gubernatorial election and the election conducted on 14 July 2018.

The Local Government Areas covered by the study include Oye in the northern part of the state, Ado-Ekiti in the central area, Ekiti West in the western area, Ekiti East in the eastern area, and Ikere in the southern part of the state.

The choice of the Ekiti State gubernatorial election is significant because the election possesses several characteristics at the micro level that make it suitable for research on vote buying. In addition, statements from the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) concerning the existence of vote buying during the election further support its selection as a case study.

1.8 Limitations of the Research

The major challenges encountered during the research were associated with the collection of primary data. One of the major limitations was the human factor, which cannot be completely eliminated from research activities. This includes respondents’ biases, limited transparency, and unwillingness by some individuals to disclose certain information considered sensitive or classified.

Another limitation relates to the scope of the study. Although the research focuses specifically on the gubernatorial election in Ekiti State, some of the conclusions and observations are used to discuss broader issues concerning Nigeria as a whole. Therefore, caution is required when generalizing findings from the Ekiti State case study to the entire Nigerian electoral system.

1.9 Organization of the Research

The research is organized into five chapters. Chapter One introduces the study and presents the background of the research, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, hypotheses, significance, scope, limitations, and organization of the study.

Chapter Two focuses on the review of related literature and the theoretical framework. The literature review concentrates on the concepts of vote buying, democratic elections, and the electoral process, while identifying the relevant concepts, issues, and themes that are central to the study. The theoretical framework adopted for the research is the theory of clientelism, particularly as it relates to electoral processes.

Chapter Three deals with the research methodology. It covers the research design, population of the study, sample size, instruments for data collection, and the procedures used to establish the validity and reliability of the research instrument.

Chapter Four primarily presents the data collected for the study, including its presentation, analysis, and interpretation.

Chapter Five concludes the research by providing a summary of the major findings and making recommendations based on the evidence obtained from the study and the experiences gained during the research process. The chapter also presents suggestions for areas that may require further research in the future.