CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The Igbo are an ethnic group who live chiefly in south-eastern Nigeria, in the tropical rainforest belt of West Africa. Igboland lies roughly between latitudes 5° and 7° north of the equator and is encircled by peoples who speak varying dialects and languages. To the north, the Igbo share boundaries with the Igala, Idoma and Tiv; to the south with the Ijaw and Ogoni; to the east with the Ibibio, Anang, Yako and Umon; and to the west with the Edo, Urhobo and Isoko (Uchendu, 1965; Isichei, 1976). The origin of the Igbo cannot easily be established because of the scarcity of records that would indicate the period, place of settlement and point of origin, and scholars have therefore long treated the question as largely a matter of informed conjecture (Isichei, 1976). Oral traditions and the available archaeological evidence suggest that the Igbo-Ukwu area was an early centre of sophisticated Igbo civilisation, with excavations dating its remarkable bronze-working to about the ninth century AD (Shaw, 1970). Ethnographic studies of Igbo life show that the people adapted effectively to the dense rainforest environment in which they settled (Uchendu, 1965).

The Igbo are among the most numerous ethnic groups in Africa, occupying about 40,922 square kilometres (Uchendu, 1965), and their numerical strength remains remarkable in present-day Nigeria. Nigeria is home to roughly 374 ethnic groups, and the Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa together account for about half of the population (Odimegwu & Somefun, 2017). South-eastern Nigeria, which the Igbo inhabit predominantly, has long been one of the most densely populated regions of the country and, arguably, of the continent; Uchendu (1965) documents population densities in Igbo areas that were exceptionally high by African standards. Igbo people are found in Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo States, as well as in parts of Delta and Rivers States. The Igbo language predominates throughout these areas, although English, the country's official language, is also widely spoken. Prominent towns and cities in Igboland include Aba, Owerri, Enugu (often described as the Igbo capital), Onitsha, Abakaliki, Afikpo, Agbor, Nsukka, Orlu, Okigwe, Umuahia, Asaba and Port Harcourt. Large numbers of Igbo people have also migrated to other parts of Nigeria, such as Lagos. Some outsiders who are not well informed about the South-East sometimes lump together the ethnic groups of the region, such as the closely related Efik and Ibibio, with the Igbo.

In Igboland, as in many other cultures, women have traditionally been viewed and treated as inferior or second-class members of society. This is a feature of many traditional African societies and of the wider Nigerian society. Patriarchy has persistently disadvantaged women in the structures of indigenous cultures, and women have been subjected to subjugation, discrimination and injustice over the years (Nwaoga et al., 2021; Okoye & Ugwu, 2024). It should be noted, however, that Igbo gender relations have never been uniform or static. Scholars have documented institutions through which Igbo women exercised collective power, such as women's associations, the umuada (daughters of the lineage) and women's collective action against perceived injustice, which complicate any simple picture of passive subordination (Van Allen, 1972; Okonjo, 1976; Amadiume, 1987). Even so, many of the customs that bear heavily on women remain in force, although these traditions are gradually changing with the introduction of Christianity and modernity. Missionary Christianity has been a major force of change in Igboland since the nineteenth century (Ekechi, 1972), and its continuing influence has altered the traditional roles of men and women and their status in contemporary society (Nwaogaidu et al., 2024).

The current drive for sustainable human development carries with it great expectations of a better world. The capability approach to development insists that every individual should be enabled to exercise his or her capabilities to the fullest and to put them to the best use in every field of life (Sen, 1999; Nussbaum, 2000). To a good majority of people in traditional societies, however, this universalist claim about the value of every human life is a new message, previously unheard and in tension with legal and customary practices entrenched in most African societies, including Igbo society.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Women face many challenges wherever cultural practices that are inimical to them exist. Widowhood rites, female genital mutilation and other related harmful practices have caused great harm to women. Nwaoga et al. (2021) describe widowhood practice as an unjust cultural practice directed against women who lose their husbands, found that it is humiliating to women, and observe that it was designed by men to push women to the background. In Nanka, in Anambra State, for example, such practices include drinking the water used to wash the husband's corpse, shaving of the widow's hair, ritual seclusion and disinheritance where there is no male child (Eze & Umeh, 2024). Studies in South-East Nigeria also show that female genital mutilation persists, although it is declining, and that it is sustained by beliefs that it purifies women and ensures their marital fidelity and by its place in initiation into womanhood (Nnamani & Mathias, n.d.). The World Health Organization and its partners define female genital mutilation as all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs, for non-medical reasons, and recognise it as a violation of the human rights of women and girls (World Health Organization, 2008). These practices are unfavourable to the health, psychological and social well-being of women, and they violate fundamental human rights.

The practices are nevertheless usually considered a normal part of life. Legal reforms have not ended them: the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015 prohibits female genital mutilation nationally (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2015), and a state law in Anambra protects widows' fundamental rights (Eze & Umeh, 2024), yet harmful practices persist in many communities. Attempts to improve the status of women have brought these practices into the limelight as part of the problems of development, because they sustain patriarchy and gender inequality in society. The problems are not adequately dealt with; instead, many people regard them as the right way of doing things. These problems informed the choice of this topic, and the researcher seeks to offer solutions to the problems facing women in Igboland.

1.3 Research Methodology

This research makes use of the historical and analytical methods, which involve exploring the available literature and sifting relevant information on the topic under discussion. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary information was obtained mainly through interviews with women who are involved in the study area, and oral interviews were conducted in the native dialect with respondents who cannot read or write. Secondary data were drawn from existing texts found in libraries and archives, periodicals, theses and internet sources.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The main aim of this research is to examine the cultural practices that are against women's rights, before and after the advent of Christianity in Igboland. It also seeks to show the contributions of Christianity towards the amelioration of the socio-cultural practices that impede women's rights. Finally, the research will suggest practical solutions that will help to stop these inimical socio-cultural practices against women.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research will provide a base for further research on similar topics and a source of information for members of the public who may wish to carry out more extensive research on the subject. It is hoped that it will add to the numerous works on the topic in the library. It will also be of use to posterity, as it is expected to be an important study for the Igbo people, especially women in Igboland.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is the people of South-Eastern Nigeria, who are found in five states: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. These people constitute one cultural zone, and the scope was chosen because of the interrelatedness of their cultures. References will also be made, for the sake of comparison, to other Igbo-speaking states in Nigeria, to Nigeria as a whole, and to West Africa and Africa generally.

1.7 Definition of Terms

For the sake of clarity, the researcher explains some key terms as they are used in this work. The conceptions given here may coincide with general meanings, which is to the advantage of the study. The terms are as follows.

Christianity. Christianity is the religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and on the belief that he is the Son of God (McGrath, 2011). It is one of the major religions in Nigeria. It took root within the framework of Judaism in first-century Palestine and spread rapidly to other parts of the world. In Igboland it came with missionary enterprise that carried a European way of life and culture along with the Christian message (Ekechi, 1972). The Church today is understood as the visible body of Christ that continues the teaching of Jesus. In this work, Christianity and the Church are used interchangeably.

Socio-cultural. The term combines the social and the cultural. "Social" pertains to society, to its organisation and to persons as they live together in society. Culture, in the classic formulation, is the complex whole that includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a person as a member of society (Tylor, 1871). Geertz (1973) described it as a historically transmitted system of symbols and meanings through which people communicate and develop their attitudes toward life. In this study, culture is the totality of a people's way of life: their language, religion, dress, food, tools, work and play, their world-view and the patterned activities directed toward achieving a good quality of life.

Church. In ordinary usage the term refers to a building used for Christian worship, to public worship, to all Christians regarded as a group, to a particular group of Christians, or to the ministers of the Christian religion. Theologically, it denotes the Greek ekklesia, meaning "called out" (Schmidt, 1965), and so refers to the religious community, an organised body of the people of Christ living under legitimate religious leadership. Dulles (1974) shows that the Church is understood in several complementary ways, including as an institution, a community, a herald and a servant. In this work, the Church is the body of people who believe in God and worship him in a particular way, and, because different churches exist in different places, it includes the various denominations found in Igboland.

Society. Society is commonly understood as a system of interrelated people who share a territory and a common way of life (Giddens & Sutton, 2021). It consists of people who work with, for and on each other in pursuit of their major interests, and who cooperate in the pursuit of common goals. The notion has widened over time: it is no longer limited to people who are related or who share a profession but extends to those who live together within a geographical location. The society to which this work refers is Igbo society, unless the context indicates otherwise.

Widowhood. Widowhood is the state or period of being a widow or a widower, that is, the condition that follows the death of one partner in a marriage. In demographic terms, there are more widows than widowers in society. In Igboland, widowhood has attracted scholarly concern because the burdens it places on women, which range from ritual seclusion and prescribed mourning dress to loss of inheritance, are far heavier than those placed on men (Nwaoga et al., 2021; Eze & Umeh, 2024).

Female Genital Mutilation. Female genital mutilation refers to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs, whether for cultural or any other non-therapeutic reasons (World Health Organization, 2008). It is recognised internationally as a violation of the human rights of women and girls.

Polygamy. Polygamy is the custom of having more than one spouse at the same time (Murdock, 1949).

Polygyny. Polygyny is the form of polygamy in which a man has more than one wife at the same time (Murdock, 1949). The wives may have been married at different times and may live separately, so that the husband visits each of them in turn. It is a form of marriage that includes more than two partners.

Human Rights. Human rights are the rights that a person has simply by virtue of being human (Donnelly, 2013). They are claims made by people, for themselves or on behalf of others, grounded in the humanity of the human being, a member of the human family. They are something of which no one may be deprived without a grave affront to justice, and they are the basis of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations General Assembly, 1948) and of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (United Nations General Assembly, 1979).

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