CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This study examines the historical relations between the Ukwuani and Urhobo peoples up to 1900. One aspect of the history of these two ethnic groups that has received relatively little attention from historians in recent times is the influence of their interactions on their respective societies. Several scholars have investigated different aspects of Ukwuani and Urhobo history, including their origins, cultural practices, and annual festivals. However, the historical relationships between the two groups, which have influenced various aspects of life in their respective territories, have not received sufficient scholarly attention, despite the fact that some individuals have direct knowledge of certain events and developments. This study therefore seeks to reconstruct the history of the Ukwuani and Urhobo peoples by examining their experiences, analysing historical events as they unfolded, and explaining their effects on the political, social, and economic activities of both groups up to 1900.

GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF THE UKWUANI PEOPLE

The Ukwuani are an ethnic group located in Delta State, Federal Republic of Nigeria. Administratively, their territory is distributed across three local government areas: Ndokwa East, Ndokwa West, and Ukwuani Local Government Areas.¹ The administrative headquarters of these local government areas are situated at Aboh, Utagba-Ogbe (Kwale), and Obiaruku, respectively.

Ukwuani territory lies approximately between longitudes 6°61′ and 6°42′ East and latitudes 6°31′ and 5°25′ North.² The area constitutes a distinct political division within Delta State, Nigeria. According to the 1963 population figures, Ukwuani land had an estimated population of about 500,000 inhabitants.³ The territory is bounded by the Benin Division to the north, the Ijaw Division to the south, Urhobo and Ukwuani divisions to the southwest, the River Niger to the east, Ika and Asaba divisions to the northeast, and Ahoada Division in Rivers State to the southeast.⁴

The geographical location of Ukwuani places the territory within two major vegetation belts: the deltaic swamp forest, which extends across the southern and southeastern coastal settlements, and the tropical rainforest, which occupies the northern part of the territory.⁵ The swampy areas contain numerous creeks and thick forests that are often difficult to penetrate. These areas also experience seasonal flooding at certain periods of the year. Rainfall is generally abundant throughout the year, while the vegetation consists of evergreen forests and savannah grasslands. The soil is also highly fertile, making the area suitable for agricultural production.⁶

Ukwuani is both the name of an ethnic group and the language spoken by its people in parts of Delta and Rivers States in Nigeria. Communities where the language is spoken include Abbi, Aboh, Afor, Akoku, Amai, Ndoni in Rivers State, Isukwe in Rivers State, Onuaboh, Ashaka, Ebedei, Emu, Ejeme Aniogo, Ezionum, Eziokpor, Utagba-Ogbe (Kwale), Ndemili, Obiaruku, Obetim Uno, Obikwele, Owa Alidima, Umuaja, Ossissa, Utagba-Uno, Umutu, Onicha-Ukwuani, Obinomba, Iselegu, Umukwata, Owa Abbi, Utchi, Abgragada, Ushie, Ogume, Azagba, and Umuolu.⁷

Agriculture is one of the major economic activities in Ukwuani territory. Garri, which is processed from cassava, is among the important products marketed and exported from the area. Palm oil and palm kernels are also produced extensively for local consumption and commercial purposes. Cocoa and rubber are cultivated as cash crops, with rubber serving as one of the principal export crops in the territory.⁸ Other agricultural products, including maize, melon, tomatoes, okra, beans, and groundnuts, are cultivated in considerable quantities. These crops are used for household consumption and sold in neighbouring communities. The abundance of agricultural produce has contributed to the development of trading activities among the people, while weaving is another occupation practised by a smaller proportion of the population.

The names Kwale and Aboh are sometimes used to refer either to the inhabitants of Ukwuani territory or to the geographical area itself. However, the use of these names, particularly Kwale, is historically problematic. The name Kwale is associated with the period of British pacification and colonial administration in Ukwuani territory. Owing to the initial resistance of the Ukwuani people to British authority, the first British political officer had to establish contact through a settlement that was predominantly Urhobo-speaking, although some of its inhabitants also spoke Ukwuani. This settlement was subsequently associated with the Urhobo Division. The local pronunciation of Ukwuani by the Urhobo people was rendered as Ukwuale or Kwale.

According to an oral account provided by Chief Obodiowe Edike,⁹ the British decision to establish a temporary administrative headquarters at Abraka was influenced by several considerations. First, the inhabitants of Abraka were friendly towards the colonial administrators. Second, the settlement was situated on relatively level ground, unlike the swampy and difficult terrain found in much of Ukwuani territory. Third, Abraka was located along the principal road leading to Warri, the provincial headquarters, thereby making communication and the movement of military reinforcements easier. Finally, Abraka was close to the River Ethiope, which was regarded as the only reliable source of clean water within the division.

The establishment of the British administrative station at Abraka brought colonial officials into closer contact with the Urhobo-speaking population in and around the area than with the Ukwuani people. Since the Urhobo inhabitants referred to their Ukwuani neighbours as Ukwuale or Kwale, representing their pronunciation of the name Ukwuani, the term gradually became widely used. The British administration subsequently adopted Kwale as a simplified designation for Ukwuani, and the administrative headquarters became known by that name. Consequently, the government station established at Utagba-Ogbe within a Government Reserved Area was called Kwale.¹⁰ The name continued to appear in official correspondence until 1950, when the people successfully advocated for the formal adoption of the correct name, Ukwuani.¹¹

It is important to emphasize that the Ukwuani communities identified above share boundaries with one another and collectively form part of a connected geographical territory. Ukwuani also occupies a strategic position within Nigeria's transportation network because several important roads pass through the area, contributing to its development. One example is the New Sapele–Agbor Road, commonly known as the New Road, which traverses Ukwuani territory. The Warri–Umutu–Ekuku–Agbor Road, which continues towards Onitsha, also passes through the area, as does the Agbor–Ogwashi Road leading to Onitsha.

The principal sources of water in Ukwuani territory include rivers and rainfall, while piped water and boreholes have become additional sources in more recent times. It is also noteworthy that the territory has not recorded earthquakes or earth tremors, according to the account presented in the original study. Similarly, the communities that constitute the Ndokwa area do not have any major mountains or prominent rock formations.

GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF THE URHOBO PEOPLE

The Urhobo are another prominent ethnic group in Delta State, Nigeria, and constitute the state's largest ethnic group. Their population is distributed across nine local government areas, including Ethiope East, Ethiope West, Okpe, Ughelli South, Ughelli North, Sapele, Udu, Uvwie, and parts of Warri South.¹² The Urhobo occupy a continuous geographical territory extending approximately between latitudes 5°15′ and 6° North and longitudes 5°40′ and 6°25′ East.¹³

The Urhobo are organized into approximately twenty-two political communities or polities. These include Agbarha-Ame (Agbassa), Agbarha-Otor, Agbarho, Agbon, Arharwarien, Avwraka, Ephon-Otor, Eghwu, Evwreni, Idjerhe, Oghara, Ogor, Okere (Urhobo), Okparabe, Okpe, Olomu, Orogun, Udu, Ughelli, Ughivwen, Ughowerun, and Uvwie.¹⁴

Geographically, Urhobo territory is bounded by the River Ethiope to the north, except in the northwestern area where a narrow strip of land extends to the river's right bank. To the south, the territory shares boundaries with the Western Ijaw local government areas of Bomadi and Patani. Its eastern boundaries adjoin Ukwuani and Ndokwa West local government areas, as well as the area identified in the original account as Ukwuani North. To the west lies Warri South Local Government Area.¹⁵ The Urhobo therefore have several neighbouring ethnic groups: the Bini to the north, the Ijaw to the south, the Ukwuani and related communities to the east, and the Itsekiri to the west.

The Urhobo inhabit the evergreen rainforest region of southern Nigeria and are predominantly agriculturalists. Farming is widely practised, with yam, cassava, maize, plantain, banana, and cocoyam serving as major food crops. These crops are cultivated by many households, primarily to meet their subsistence needs. Nevertheless, the abundance of oil palm products was particularly responsible for attracting early European commercial interest to Urhobo territory, as subsequent chapters of this study will explain. Rubber is another important cash crop that contributes to the economic livelihood of the people, although it has historically received less attention than oil palm.

Fishing is also an important occupation among the Urhobo because numerous rivers and creeks flow through their territory. Among the major waterways is the River Ethiope, which passes through Sapele and parts of the Abraka clan. The Warri River also flows through areas associated with Ughievwen (Okwagbe), Agbarho, Agbon, and Abraka clans. In addition, a tributary of the Forcados River, known as Okpare, passes through Obomu clan into Ekakpamre Creek and the Kiagbodo River.¹⁶

The presence of these waterways supports fishing activities and other forms of river-based economic production. Urhobo communities situated along the rivers also produce locally distilled gin, commonly called ogogoro, from raffia palms.¹⁷ Pottery and the production of raffia mats are additional sources of income, particularly among the Ughievwen people of Ughelli South Local Government Area.

Population figures recorded during the colonial period present some inconsistencies. The national census conducted in 1932 reportedly placed the population of Urhobo Division at approximately 359,000. However, the census undertaken in 1952 by the government of the then Mid-Western Region of Nigeria recorded the population of the division as about 323,000.¹⁸ This represents a decrease of approximately 36,000 people between the two reported figures. Such a decline appears questionable and raises concerns about the accuracy, consistency, or comparability of the historical census records.

The Urhobo territory experiences a generally warm climate. The average annual temperature is approximately 27°C, with relatively little variation between seasons or months. Its location within the Niger Delta exposes the area to moisture-bearing winds from the Atlantic Ocean, resulting in considerable rainfall. Most parts of Urhobo territory receive an annual rainfall of approximately 2,500 millimetres or more.¹⁹ These climatic conditions support the growth of tropical vegetation and contribute to the suitability of the area for agriculture.

It is also necessary to note that several Urhobo communities share boundaries with one another and form an interconnected geographical region. The territory occupies an important position within Nigeria's transportation network, as some major roads pass through it and have contributed to its development. The main sources of water include rainfall and rivers, while piped water and boreholes have become additional sources in contemporary times. According to the account presented in the original study, Urhobo territory has not recorded earthquakes or earth tremors, and its communities do not contain major mountains or prominent rock formations.

TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN OF THE UKWUANI PEOPLE

Establishing precise dates for historical events has been a major difficulty in reconstructing Ukwuani history. This challenge arises partly from the limited availability of written literature on the origin and early history of the people. Consequently, researchers have had to depend considerably on oral traditions preserved by traditional authorities and knowledgeable elders, including the Okpala, Okwa, Onotu or Inotu, Eze, and Ada, as well as other experienced individuals whose historical knowledge has been transmitted orally from one generation to another.

The origins of the Ukwuani people have generated considerable debate because different clans and communities maintain different accounts of their ancestry. These disagreements are partly attributable to competing interests, as individual clans, villages, and family groups sometimes seek to establish their historical prominence or superiority over others.

The term Ukwuani refers both to the people and to their language. Its use therefore encompasses the ethnic community as well as the language through which its members communicate. For historical and administrative purposes, the name Ndokwa was formed from the names of two former district councils in the old Aboh Division: Ndosumili and Ukwuani District Councils.²⁰ The term was created by combining the first three letters of Ndosumili with the second, third, and fifth letters of Ukwuani.

As previously explained, the Ukwuani people are concentrated mainly in Ndokwa East, Ndokwa West, and Ukwuani Local Government Areas of Delta State. However, Ukwuani-speaking communities are also found in other parts of Delta State and Rivers State. Some writers and historians have excluded these communities from their definitions of the Ndokwa nation or ethnic group because they restrict the geographical identification of Ukwuani to the three local government areas mentioned above.

Nevertheless, Ukwuani-speaking communities outside these administrative boundaries may also be regarded as part of the wider Ndokwa or Ukwuani ethnic community. They speak the Ukwuani language and, in many cases, maintain traditions of origin that connect them to established Ukwuani communities in Delta State. Their linguistic and historical relationships therefore provide important grounds for including them in a broader understanding of Ukwuani identity.

Like other ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ukwuani people possess traditions that explain their historical origins. It is difficult to examine every version of these traditions because the different clans do not share a single, universally accepted account of their ancestry. Nevertheless, this study focuses on those traditions that have broader relevance to the ethnic group and are particularly prominent among its members.

Because Ukwuani society consists of numerous clans with different historical experiences, there are varying explanations concerning the origins of the people. However, oral accounts provided by elders suggest that three major waves of migration contributed to the formation of the present Ukwuani population.

The first wave consisted of independent settlers, particularly the Umu-Akashiada, Ebedei, and Akarai clans, who claim to have migrated from Benin. According to these traditions, their early arrival enabled them to occupy some of the most favourable parts of Ukwuani territory. A second group of independent settlers subsequently arrived from eastern Nigeria. This group included Abarra Clan, Utu-Oku, Umu-Barautchi, Ndoni, Onya, and Adai clans. These communities established settlements along the banks of the River Niger and represented some of the earliest groups of Igbo origin to establish separate settlements in Ukwuani territory.

A third migration occurred towards the end of the sixteenth century, when an organized group of Edo conquerors entered Ukwuani territory. The Aboh clan and its related communities, including Abbi, Amai, and Umukwata, are associated with this movement.²¹

Among the first wave of migrants believed to have originated from Edo territory, the Umu-Akashiada clan claims to have been the earliest to settle in Ukwuani land. The clan is associated with the communities of Eziokpo, Ezionum, Umuebu, and Obiaruku. Abraka, which is now associated with the Urhobo, also appears in the historical account of these settlements.

According to Chief Oshilim Nwazuosa,²² the ancestors of the clan originated from Benin and settled in the Umuoshi quarter of Eziokpo. Oral tradition holds that Akashiada had two wives. The first wife gave birth to three sons named Okpor, Ezie, and Ebu, while the second wife gave birth to a son called Ovili.

Following Akashiada's death, the population of the family increased considerably, making the original settlement too crowded. The brothers consequently separated and established new settlements for their respective families. Okpo, the eldest son, remained in the original settlement at Umuoshi and became its principal heir. His descendants subsequently named the settlement Eziokpo in his honour.

Ezie, the second son, moved southwards with his family and established another settlement, which his descendants named Ezionum after their ancestor. Ebu, the youngest of the first wife's sons, migrated westwards and initially settled at Obi-Agbulugu. He later moved to One-Oto, also known as Obi-ata, before finally establishing a settlement at its present location. His descendants named the community Umuebu, meaning the descendants of Ebu. Ovili, the only son of Akashiada's second wife, moved farther westwards and established the village of Ovili, now identified as Abraka-Inland.

Between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, additional independent settlements were established by the Ebedei and Akarai clans. The Ebedei settled in the area now occupied by Ogume in the hinterland of Ukwuani, while the Akarai established themselves at the present site of Aboh, between Ase Creek and the River Niger. Both clans are traditionally associated with Benin ancestry.

According to the oral account of Pa Enehume Nmor,²³ the ancestor associated with Ebedei was a man named Udei, who reportedly migrated from Benin and settled at the present site of Aboh. He had two sons, Okpu and Ezie-Ogoli, who later became the founders of the Ebedei clan.

The two brothers subsequently left Aboh and established themselves at the present site of Ogume, south of Okumeshi Stream. Because of the shortage of farmland, Okpu crossed to the northern side of the stream while hunting and discovered fertile land. He marked his claim to the land by planting Ani Divinity, an earth-related covenant symbol associated with ownership. He then invited his brother, Ezie-Ogoli, to join him. Together, they settled in the area now known as Umunyalum.

Ezie-Ogoli later moved to Ogbe Ata, from where his descendants eventually relocated to the present Umuezie-Ogoli quarter. This movement was reportedly prompted by a conflict between Umunyalum and Umuezie-Ogoli. During the dispute, Umunyalum quarter was destroyed by fire. Fearing possible retaliation and recognizing the difficulty of travelling to their farms through Umunyalum, the Umuezie-Ogoli people decided to leave Ogbe Ata.

Before this conflict, other migrants had joined the two brothers and contributed to the formation of the different quarters that later constituted Ebedei. These included Ogbe Uzu, whose people migrated from Akarai; Umu-Osele, whose inhabitants reportedly came from Benin; and Isemelu and Ukwu-Ole quarters, whose settlers arrived from Ogume.

The Ndoni clan, which consists of Ndoni and Oniku villages, has a different account of origin. Its members trace their ancestry to Utafi in Ahoada Division of Rivers State. According to the oral testimony of Elder Ikpeoha Onyeso,²⁴ the leader of the migrants from Utafi settled at Oniku, while the other members of the group established themselves at Ndoni. This tradition explains why Oniku is regarded as the ancestral settlement of the Ndoni clan.

The historical significance of Oniku is also reflected in its traditional religious responsibilities. The priest of Ani, the earth covenant divinity for the entire clan, is selected from among the oldest men of Oniku, known as the Oke. The priest determines the date of the Udieri festival, which is jointly observed by the two villages. In addition, when a man from Ndoni loses his wife through death, he is expected to approach the Oke of Oniku to perform the appropriate sacrifice to Ani.

INVASIONS

By the middle of the fifteenth century, the relatively young independent settlements in Ukwuani territory had begun to experience repeated invasions from Benin. Oba Ewuare the Great, associated in the account with the year 1440, was particularly remembered for attempting to bring the Akashiada clans under Benin's authority and compel them to accept its overlordship. Ewuare was portrayed in historical traditions as a powerful ruler reputed for his abilities as a magician, physician, traveller, and warrior.²⁵ He was also remembered for his courage, strength, and political wisdom.

Historical accounts attribute to Ewuare the conquest of approximately 201 towns and villages across areas such as Ekiti, Ikare, Afenmai, and western Igbo territory. The rulers of these communities were reportedly captured, while their inhabitants were compelled to pay tribute to Benin.

According to an interview with Chief Okpor Nduka,²⁶ the Oba frequently dispatched soldiers to intimidate neighbouring clans. These communities were expected to provide hospitality to the visiting soldiers, and refusal to do so was interpreted as an act of disrespect that could result in immediate annexation. During one of these expeditions, Edo soldiers attempted to compel the Akashiada clans to pay tribute. However, Umuebu, described in the account as the most powerful and populous of the Akashiada clans, resisted the troops and forced them to retreat.

The sixteenth century witnessed the arrival of a more organized Edo expedition whose military strength the Ukwuani communities were unable to resist effectively. This expedition was associated with the Aboh group. Its movement led not only to the establishment of the Aboh Kingdom but also to the founding of several settlements across Ukwuani territory.

As the group moved southwards, its numbers gradually decreased because some families decided to settle at different points along the route. The settlements associated with this process included Obetim, Ossissa, Ashaka, and Amai.

The remaining members of the expedition continued northwards with their families, travelling together for a period before reaching the present site of Umukwata, where they established an initial camp. After remaining together for several years, different groups moved away to establish separate settlements. Amai moved westwards to found Amai, while Eti travelled farther west and established Orogun. Amacha moved towards the southwest and founded Abbi.

Ukwata, regarded as the oldest among the leaders, remained with his family at the original settlement. His descendants later named the community Umukwata, meaning the descendants of Ukwata. As the migration and settlement process continued, other communities emerged, including Ogume, Akoku, Onicha, Emu, Umuolu, Utagba-Ogbe (Kwale), and Utagba-Uno.

Despite these accounts, it is necessary to acknowledge that the origins of the Ukwuani people remain subjects of considerable debate. As previously observed, different clans, villages, and family groups have particular interests in establishing the historical prominence of their respective communities. These competing claims have contributed to the continuing controversy surrounding Ukwuani origins.

TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN OF THE URHOBO PEOPLE

Like the Ukwuani, the Urhobo possess a variety of traditions explaining their historical origins. Examining all these accounts is difficult because the different Urhobo clans do not share a single, universally accepted narrative of ancestry. This section therefore concentrates on the traditions that are particularly prominent among the people and have broader significance for understanding Urhobo historical identity.

There are approximately four major traditions concerning the origin of the Urhobo people. These accounts were collected by different researchers, at different periods, and in different locations. They are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as more than one tradition may preserve aspects of the people's historical experiences. The four traditions include: (i) autochthony, (ii) migration from an original Edo territory, (iii) origin from Ife, and (iv) origin from Sudan and Egypt.²⁷ Each of these traditions is examined below.

Autochthony

Many Urhobo traditions emphasize the belief that the people were the original inhabitants and owners of their present territory. According to this view, the ancestors of the Urhobo did not migrate from another region but had occupied their ancestral lands from time immemorial. They are therefore regarded within this tradition as indigenous inhabitants whose origins cannot be traced to an external place of migration.

Although this account lacks documentary or archaeological evidence in the form described in the original study, it repeatedly appears in the testimonies of Urhobo informants and should not be dismissed without consideration.

The strength and continuity of this indigenous-origin tradition may also be reflected in the extent to which different groups that entered Urhobo territory were eventually incorporated into a shared cultural and social environment. Over time, these groups appear to have adopted common cultural practices and forms of social organization, contributing to the development of a recognizable Urhobo identity.

Emigration from an Original Edo Territory

Traditions associating the Urhobo with migration from Edo territory generally identify two categories of migrants: ordinary members of the population and members of the ruling elite. Many Urhobo communities claim that their ancestors came from Benin. However, they distinguish this claim from the suggestion that they were originally Bini people who later became Urhobo after arriving in their present territory. Instead, they maintain that their ancestors were already Urhobo before leaving Benin. This tradition is among those discussed in published historical accounts.²⁸

Accounts connecting the Urhobo to Benin identify two major periods of migration associated with the dynastic history of the Bini people. The first is linked to the Ogiso Dynasty, which reportedly consisted of thirty-one rulers before the journey to Ife that tradition associates with the establishment of the Eweka dynasty.

Urhobo oral traditions preserve memories of Igodomigodo, a name associated with the territory in these historical narratives. The period is often described in terms of cruelty, hardship, insecurity, deprivation, and oppressive rule. According to these accounts, such conditions encouraged the Urhobo, who were apparently less powerful than the ruling authorities, to leave their former settlements in search of greater security, peace, and economic opportunities.²⁹

The second major migration is also associated with the later Benin dynasty. However, the chronology presented in the original account requires further verification: it refers to migration after 1770 A.D. while also mentioning the reign of Egbeka around 1370 A.D.³⁰ These dates are inconsistent as written. Nevertheless, the tradition broadly associates another movement of Urhobo groups with political developments during the later period of Benin's dynastic history.

Traditions of Origin from Ife

Some Urhobo communities also preserve traditions connecting their ancestry with Ile-Ife. However, the precise nature of this relationship is not clearly established in the accounts described in the original study. Neither the communities at Ife nor those in Urhobo territory are able to provide a consistent explanation of the historical connection.

This uncertainty may be partly attributed to the limitations of oral memory, particularly where historical information has been transmitted across generations without written records. Places identified by Urhobo informants in Ile-Ife as ancestral points of departure may instead have represented areas where Urhobo migrants or their descendants had gathered within more recent historical memory.

It is acknowledged that a considerable number of Urhobo people live in and around Ile-Ife. Nevertheless, their presence in the area appears to be more consistent with that of migrant communities than with the claim that they were its original inhabitants. Despite these uncertainties, traditions linking the Urhobo to Ife continue to hold significance among some members of the ethnic group.

Traditions of Origin from Sudan and Egypt

Some traditions also associate the Urhobo people with Sudan and Egypt. At first consideration, these accounts may appear difficult to reconcile with the other traditions of origin discussed above. Nevertheless, they may provide indications of perceived historical relationships among Edo-speaking and Yoruba-speaking populations.

These traditions are relevant to the study of historical identity because they offer cultural narratives through which communities explain their connections with other peoples. Their significance should therefore be considered within the broader social and cultural contexts that shape historical interpretation, rather than being accepted as definitive evidence of migration without further corroboration.

In addition to the traditions already examined, some Urhobo clans are said to have origins associated with Igbo-speaking communities.³¹ However, centuries of interaction, intermarriage, and population movement have contributed to the development of shared cultural characteristics among the Urhobo. These characteristics have undergone continuous modification over time and are reflected in practices relating to marriage, burial ceremonies, clothing, social values, and other aspects of communal life. Collectively, these practices form important elements of what is commonly recognized as Urhobo culture.